Biology Major Field Test

Adaptive vs. Innate Immune Response

Adaptive -

"specific response"

Has immunological memory

Later response (3-7 days)

Uses B and T cells

Effectiveness increases with exposure

Innate-

"nonspecific response"

1st line of defense

Response within 12 hours

Lacks immunological memory

Mutualism

Benefit to both partners

Normally partners cannot live seperately

Cooperation

A beneficial but not obligate form of symbiosis

Commensalism

One partner benefits, the other is neither helped or harmed

Ammensalism

The negative impact of one organism on another due to release of specific compounds

If a pathogen can be transmitted via direct contact it is ______ virulent compare to another pathogen that is vector-borne.

Less virulent

Toxin

Specific substance that alters the normal metabolism of the host cell

Autotrophs

Carbon source from atmospheric CO2

Heterotrophs

Carbon source from organic compounds

Phototrophs

Energy source is light

Chemotrophs

Energy source is from oxidation of chemical compounds

Lithotrophs

Electron source from reduction of inorganic substances

Organotrophs

Electron source from organic compounds

Passive diffusion

Movement of small molecules across a cellular membrane to go from high concentration to low with the potential graduation - no energy required

Facilitated diffusion

Use of a carrier protein to assist the transportation of molecules across the cellular membrane

Pure culture

Assumption that all the cells grown on the plate have arose from one single ancestor cell

Defined Media

Media in which all components of the mix are known

Complex Media

Media in which all components are not known

Selective Media

Media favors growth of specific microorganisms

Differentiated Media

Media can will visually distinguish between groups of bacteria based on biological characterisitics

Binary Fission

Reproductive strategy of most haploid bacteria/archaeal cells to create identical cells

1) cell elongates

2) replicates their chromosome

3)divides down middle with one chromosome in each new half

Bacterial Growth Stage 1: Lag Phase

Time after the new introduction of bacteria on a new medium with no growth

Bacterial Growth Stage 2: Exponential Phase

Microbes are now growing at a constant rate at maximum dividing rates

Bacterial Growth Stage 3: Stationary Phase

Population growth ceases and the growth curve levels off

Bacterial Growth Stage 4: Death Phase

Decrease in viable microorganisms due to depletion of sources (media, oxygen, food)

Acidophiles

Microorganisms whose optimum growth is between a pH of 0.0-5.5

Fungi & Algae

Neutrophiles

Microorganisms whose optimum growth is between a pH of 5.5 - 8.0

Most bacteria

Alkalophiles

Microorganisms whose optimum growth is between 8.5-11.5

Buffers

Prevent drastic pH changes

Normally a phosphate

Psychophiles

Microorganisms whose optimum growth is at low temperatures (0-20C)

Mesophiles

Microorganisms whose optimum growth is at temperatures between 15-45C

Thermophiles

Microorganisms whose optimum growth is at temperatures between 45-80C

Hyperthermophiles

Microorganisms whose optimum growth is at temperatures between 80-113C

Aerobes

Organisms that are capable of living in the presence of O2

Anaerobes

Organisms that are capable of living in the absence of O2

Obligate Aerobes

Organisms that can only grow in the presence of O2

Obligate Anaerobes

Organisms that can only grow in the absence of O2

Facultative Anaerobes

Organisms that do not require the presence of O2 to grow but grow best in its presence

Aero-tolerant

Organisms that are indifferent to the levels of O2

Biofilms

Communities of microorganisms that cling together to a surface to provide community protection against drugs and antibiotics

Quorum Sensing

Method of density-dependent bacterial cell communication

Fungi Characteristics

Spore-bearing

Eukaryotic

Lack chlorophyll

Reproduce a/sexually

Primarily terrestrial - yeasts, molds, mushrooms

Fungi - Thallus

Body/vegetative structure

Fungi - Hyphae

A long, branched, thread-like filament of cells needed growth due to increased turgor pressure against hyphae cell membranes

Spore

Reproductive structure adapted for dispersal and survival in unfavorable conditions

Mycorrhizal symbionts

Form mutualistic relationships with the root systems of plants by providing access to phosphorus

Protist Characteristics

-Eukaryotic

-Lack unified tissue organization

-Single celled

-A/Sexual reproductive phases

-Cytoplasm

-Vacuoloes

-Mitochondria(-like) structure

-Cilia/Flagella

Protozoa

Chemoheterotrophic protists

Algae

Photoautotrophic protists

Bacteria shape: cocci

spherically shaped

Bacteria shape: bacilli

rod-shaped

Bacteria shaped: spirochetes/spirilla

Spiral shaped

Bacteria Cell Organization

-Plasma membrane

-Ribosomes

-Inclusion bodies

-Nucleoid

-Cell wall

-Capsule

-Periplasmic space

-Pili

-Flagella

Bacteria cell inclusion bodies

storage of carbon, phosphate, and other materials

Bacteria cell periplasmic space

contains hydrolytic enzymes and binding proteins for nutrient processing and uptake

Ribosome sites and centers:A site, P site, E site, and peptidyltransferase center

A site: Aminoacyl site - site in the ribosome that BINDS the incoming aminoacyl-tRNA (anticodon)

P site: Peptidyl site - site in the ribosome to which a rRA with a growing polypeptide chain is bound

E site: exit site - site on the ribosome where the deacylated tRNA is found

Peptidyltransferase center - site in the large ribosomal subunit at which the joining of two amino acids is catalyzed

Bacteria Plasmid

Small, double stranded piece of DNA that exists and replicated independently of the bacterial chromosome; usually circular

Endospore

An extremely heat and chemical resistant, dormant, thick walled spore that develops within bacteria

develops in response to lack of nutrients

Refraction

The deflection of a light ray from a straight path as it passed from one medium to another

Robert Hooke (1635-1703)

Credited with the first publication of microscopic organisms "cells"

Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)

Father of microbiology

Prokaryotes

Lack a cell nucleus

Lack membrane bound organells

Bacteria and Archaea

Eukaryotes

Membrane bound organelles

Nucleus and Mitochondria

Fungi and Protists

Viruses

Acellular entry that must invade host calls to replicate

Rough ER in Eukaryotes

Bears ribosomes on its surface - site of protein synthesis

Smooth ER in Eukaryotes

Lacks ribosomes on its surface

Lysosomes in Eukaryotes

Function is intracellular digestion by use of slightly acid environment and hydrolytic enzymes

Phagocytosis

Process whereby a cell wall will engulf large particles (to eat)

Pinocytosis

Process whereby small amounts of surrounding liquid is engulfed (to drink)

Mitochondria

Converts oxygen and nutrients into adenosine triphosphate ATP

Mitochondria cristae

Special infolding in the inner membrane of the mitochondria

Chloroplast

a plastid that uses light energy to convert CO2 and H2O to carbohydrates and O2 (photosynthesis)

Plastid

Cytoplasmic organelles of algae and plants that posses pigments such as cholorophylls

Chloroplast Thylakoids

site of photosynthesis reaction

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

DNA - storage molecule of genetic instructions to carry out metabolism and reproduction

Chain of linked nucleotides that contain deoxyriboses as sugar molecules

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Expresses the information of DNA

Nucleotide is made of up:

Phosphates, Sugars, & Nitrogenous Bases

DNA Nucleotides are

Adenine

Guanine

Cytosine

Thymine

DNA Nucleotide complementary pairs

Thymine-Adenine

Guanine-Cytosine

Promoter

Regulatory region located a short distance from the start of a gene that acts as a binding site for RNA polymerase

Activator

protein that activates transcription

Repressor

Protein that binds, such as an operator, to prevent the transcription

Operator

DNA region that acts as the binding site for a repressor protein

3 ways bacterial can replicate its genetic information:

Conjugation, transformation, & transduction

Bacterial DNA Replication Method: Conjugation

the transfer of DNA by direct cell to cell contact of bacteria using the rolling circle replication method

Bacterial DNA Replication Method: Transformation

the directed modification of a genome by the external application of DNA from a cell of a different genotype

Bacterial DNA Replication Method: Transduction

Occurs when bacterial DNA is packaged into the capsid head of a virus and delivered to another bacteria

Bacteriophage

Virus capable of infecting bacteria via transduction

Ecology

Scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environments

Habitat

the specific environment in which an organism lives (include biotic and abiotic factors)

Organismal ecology

examines the ability of organisms to adapt to environmental challenges

Population ecology

examines factors that affect the growth of a population (individuals of the same species)

Community ecology

examines interactions between species in communities (all organisms in an area)

Ecosystem ecology

examines the energy flow and the cycling of chemical among abiotic and biotic factors

Carbon Fixation

Conversion of inorganic carbon (CO2) into organic matter

Half of carbon on earth is fixed by

microbes

Nitrogen fixation

reduction of N2 to organic forms (nitrogenous bases and amino acids)

Nitrification

Converts ammonium into nitrite into nitrate

Denitrification

Nitrite is removed from the ecosystem and returned to N2

________ can perform both steps of nitrification

Bacteria