AP Gov Foundational Documents

Declaration of Independence (1776)

Drafted by Jefferson; establishes natural rights (life, liberty, pursuit of happiness), popular sovereignty, and the social contract. Government derives power from consent of the governed; when it fails, the people have the right to alter or abolish it. Rooted in Locke's natural rights theory.

Articles of Confederation (1781)

First U.S. constitution. Created a weak central government — Congress could not tax, regulate commerce, or enforce laws. Required 9/13 states to pass legislation and unanimity to amend. Its failures led directly to the Constitutional Convention of 1787.

U.S. Constitution (1787)

Supreme law of the United States. Establishes three branches with separation of powers and checks and balances. Key clauses: Necessary & Proper, Commerce, Supremacy, Due Process, Equal Protection. Amended 27 times; first 10 amendments = Bill of Rights.

Federalist No. 10 (Madison, 1787)

Argues a large representative republic controls factions better than a small democracy. Factions are inevitable but can be controlled by diluting their influence across a large, diverse republic with elected representatives filtering public opinion.

Brutus No. 1 (Anti-Federalist, 1787)

Argues the Constitution gives the national government dangerously unlimited power via the Necessary & Proper and Supremacy Clauses. A large republic cannot truly represent the people; consolidation of power will destroy state governments and threaten individual liberty.

Federalist No. 51 (Madison, 1788)

Argues separation of powers and checks and balances are the primary safeguards against tyranny. "Ambition must be made to counteract ambition." Power is divided both horizontally (branches) and vertically (federal vs. state). "If men were angels, no government would be necessary."

Federalist No. 70 (Hamilton, 1788)

Argues for a single, energetic executive. Unity provides accountability, decisiveness, and effectiveness. A plural executive conceals responsibility and enables faction. "Energy in the executive is a leading character in the definition of good government."

Federalist No. 78 (Hamilton, 1788)

Argues the judiciary is the weakest branch — it controls neither sword nor purse. Life tenure ensures judicial independence. Courts must be able to void unconstitutional acts of Congress, laying the intellectual groundwork for judicial review (Marbury v. Madison).

Letter from Birmingham Jail (MLK, 1963)

Written by Dr. King while imprisoned in Birmingham, AL. Defends nonviolent direct action and distinguishes just laws (uphold human dignity) from unjust laws (degrade it). One has a moral responsibility to disobey unjust laws openly and accept the legal penalty. Demands immediate civil rights, not gradual change.