Biology Master Study Set

A comprehensive vocabulary study set covering the scientific method, characteristics of life, human anatomy, biochemistry, cytology, plasma membrane transport, and cellular energetics.

Qualitative

Descriptive data that cannot be measured numerically (e.g., color, texture).

Quantitative

Numerical data that can be counted or measured (e.g., mass, volume).

Hypothesis

A testable explanation or prediction for a scientific phenomenon.

Dependent variable

The factor being measured or observed in an experiment; changes in response to the independent variable.

Independent variable

The factor that is deliberately manipulated or changed by the experimenter.

Abstract

A brief summary of a research paper or scientific study.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the experimental treatment, used for comparison.

Controlled Factors

Constants; conditions that are kept exactly the same across all experimental groups.

Responsiveness

The ability of an organism or system to react to stimuli.

Sample size

The number of observations or subjects included in an experiment or study.

Trials

Repeated tests or runs of the exact same experiment to ensure reliability.

Line Graph

A chart used to show trends or changes over continuous time.

Scatterplot

A graph displaying data points to look for relationships between two variables.

Trendline

A line drawn on a graph showing the general direction or pattern of data points.

Correlation

A relationship or connection between two or more variables.

Circle Graph

A pie chart used to show parts of a whole or percentages.

Column Graph

A bar chart with vertical bars used to compare different categories of data.

Cell Organization

The structural arrangement of cells from basic components up to complex tissues and organs.

Metabolism

The sum of all chemical reactions that take place within a living organism to maintain life.

Heterotroph

An organism that must consume other organisms to obtain energy.

Autotroph

An organism that produces its own food using sunlight or chemical energy.

Photosynthesis

The process by which autotrophs convert light energy into chemical energy (glucose).

Ingestion

The process of taking food or drink into the body by swallowing or absorbing it.

Digestion

The chemical and mechanical breakdown of food into smaller, absorbable nutrients.

Anaerobic Respiration

The process of generating cellular energy without the use of oxygen.

Aerobic Respiration

The process of generating cellular energy (ATP) using oxygen.

Stimulus

A physical or chemical change in the environment that triggers a reaction.

Response

An organism's reaction to a specific stimulus.

Homeostasis

The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.

Negative Feedback

A regulatory mechanism in which a stimulus initiates actions that reverse or counter that stimulus (e.g., sweating to cool down).

Positive Feedback

A regulatory mechanism that amplifies or increases a response (e.g., blood clotting, childbirth).

Regulation

The control and coordination of life processes to maintain homeostasis.

Evolution

The gradual change in the genetic traits of a population over generations.

Growth

An increase in the physical size or number of cells in an organism.

Development

The process of change and maturation that occurs during an organism's life cycle.

Asexual Reproduction

Reproduction involving a single parent, resulting in genetically identical offspring.

Sexual Reproduction

Reproduction involving two parents, combining genetic material to produce genetically diverse offspring.

Breathing

The physical process of inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide.

Epiglottis

A flap of tissue that seals off the windpipe during swallowing to prevent food from entering the lungs.

Trachea

The windpipe; a tube that connects the larynx to the bronchi.

Bronchi

The two main branches splitting off the trachea that lead directly into the lungs.

Bronchioles

Small, branching tubes within the lungs that lead from the bronchi to the alveoli.

Alveoli

Tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange (oxygen and carbon dioxide) occurs.

Hemoglobin

An iron-rich protein in red blood cells that binds and transports oxygen.

Mechanical Digestion

The physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces (e.g., chewing, churning).

Chemical Digestion

The breakdown of food using enzymes and acids into simpler chemical building blocks.

Enzyme

A biological catalyst (usually a protein) that speeds up chemical reactions in living things.

Peristalsis

Wave-like muscle contractions that move food through the digestive tract.

Duodenum

The first section of the small intestine where most chemical digestion takes place.

Villi

Tiny, finger-like projections on the walls of the small intestine that increase surface area for nutrient absorption.

Heart

The muscular organ that pumps blood throughout the body.

Atria

The two upper chambers of the heart that receive incoming blood.

Ventricle

The two lower chambers of the heart that pump blood out to the lungs or body.

Pulmonary artery

The blood vessel that carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs.

Pulmonary Vein

The blood vessel that carries oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the heart.

Aorta

The largest artery in the body, carrying oxygenated blood from the heart out to the body tissues.

Vena Cava

The large veins (superior and inferior) that return deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart.

Tricuspid Valve

The valve located between the right atrium and right ventricle.

Bicuspid Valve

The valve (mitral valve) located between the left atrium and left ventricle.

Aortic Valve

The valve separating the left ventricle from the aorta.

Pulmonary Valve

The valve separating the right ventricle from the pulmonary artery.

Blood Plasma

The liquid, yellowish component of blood that carries water, nutrients, and waste.

White Blood cells

Leukocytes; immune system cells that fight off pathogens and infections.

Red Blood cells

Erythrocytes; cells that transport oxygen throughout the body.

Platelets

Thrombocytes; cell fragments essential for blood clotting.

Arteries

Thick-walled blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart under high pressure.

Veins

Blood vessels equipped with valves that carry blood back toward the heart under low pressure.

Capillaries

Microscopic, thin-walled blood vessels where gas, nutrient, and waste exchange occurs.

Control Center

The part of a homeostatic loop (often the brain) that processes information and determines a response.

Effector

An organ, gland, or muscle that executes the response commanded by the control center.

Hormone

A chemical messenger produced by glands and transported by the blood to regulate target organs.

Organic Compound

A chemical compound containing carbon atoms covalently bonded to hydrogen.

Hydrocarbon

An organic molecule consisting entirely of carbon and hydrogen atoms.

Substituted Hydrocarbon

A hydrocarbon in which one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a different functional group.

Monomer

A small, repeating molecular unit that can bond with others to form a larger chain.

Polymer

A large molecule composed of many repeating monomer units bonded together.

Gene

A segment of DNA that codes for a specific protein or trait.

Carbohydrates

Macromolecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen ($1:2:1$ ratio) used for quick energy and structure.

Lipids

Hydrophobic macromolecules (fats, oils, waxes) used for long-term energy storage and cell membranes.

Proteins

Macromolecules made of amino acids that perform structural, enzymatic, and regulatory functions.

Nucleic Acids

Macromolecules (DNA and RNA) composed of nucleotides that store and transmit genetic information.

Monosaccharide

A simple, single-ring sugar molecule (e.g., glucose, fructose), the monomer of carbohydrates.

Isomer

Molecules that share the same chemical formula but have different structural arrangements.

Disaccharide

A sugar formed by joining two monosaccharides together (e.g., sucrose, lactose).

Dehydration Synthesis

A chemical reaction where monomers link to form polymers, releasing a water molecule.

Hydrolysis

A chemical reaction that breaks polymers down into monomers by adding a water molecule.

Oxygen Bridge

The oxygen atom that links two sugar rings together in a disaccharide or polysaccharide.

Starch

A storage polysaccharide found in plants made of glucose chains.

Cellulose

A structural polysaccharide that makes up plant cell walls.

Glycogen

A storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscles of animals.

Chitin

A structural polysaccharide found in fungal cell walls and arthropod exoskeletons.

Amino Acid

The monomer building block of proteins, consisting of an amine group, carboxyl group, and R-side chain.

Replacement Group

Also known as the R-group or side chain; the variable group that makes each amino acid unique.

Amine group

A functional group containing nitrogen (-NH2) found in amino acids.

Carboxyl Group

An acidic functional group (-COOH) found in organic acids and amino acids.

Hydroxide group

A functional group consisting of an oxygen and hydrogen atom (-OH).

Dipeptide

A molecule consisting of two amino acids linked by a peptide bond.

polypeptide

A long chain of amino acids linked together; the precursor to a functional protein.

Peptide Bond

The covalent bond holding amino acids together in a protein.

Globular Protein

A spherical, water-soluble protein that typically performs functional roles (e.g., enzymes, antibodies).