psychology - psychopathology

What are the different definitions of abnormality

Statistical infrequency, deviation from social norms, failure to function adequately, deviation from ideal mental health

What is meant by statistical infrequency

Abnormality as showing behaviours that are rare or unusual. Focus us in the numbers of people showing the behaviour rather than the acceptability of the behaviour

What are the problems with the extremes of the curve of statistical infrequency

fails to describe and distinguish between problematic behaviour that needs treatment and desirable behaviour where treatment isn’t required. (E.g IQ scores)  in order to adequately treat psychological disorders, we need a definition that will adequately identify the behaviours that are statistically rare, but also are undesirable and damaging to the individual - statistical infrequency cannot be used on its own to decide whether a person is abnormal

Why does statistical infrequency have limited cultural relativity

because some behaviours are rare in some cultures but not others therefore what is considered abnormal in one culture is normal in others so statistical infrequency can’t be used

What is deviation from social norms

Abnormality in terms of breaking the social normals of society. Some of these standards are explicit and to violate them mean breaking the law. Other rules are implicit but are agreed within a society. Those who violate these norms are often regarded as deviant or abnormal Social norms vary by culture. E.g homosexuality. Social norms also change over time.

Why does deviation from social norms lack cultural relativism

social norms are influenced and defined by culture. What may appear normal in one culture is abnormal in another. Social norms tend to be dictated by the majority within a culture so a behaviour may not be seen as normal within a culture as a whole just within a community. This can lead to lack of understanding within the culture and then leads to human rights abuses

Why does deviation from social norms lack time validity

social norms change over time therefore if we use deviation from social norms to identify mental health disorders then these definitions have to change or they will become irrelevant. In addition a person could be deemed as normal by their peers but abnormal by their parents and children as social norms can differ between generations. The definition also doesn’t account for context. For example wearing a bikini is normal at the beach in some cultures but abnormal at work.

What is failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality

Failure to cope with everyday life. These individuals may be unable to experience normal emotions which in turn will effect the way they conduct themselves on a day to day basis

What is maladaptiveness

behaviour which stops the person achieving goals or able to cope with everyday life

Why is the fact that behaviour observed may not be dysfunctional a criticism of failure to function adequately

Just because society deems that someone is not coping, it doesn’t mean that their behaviour is dysfunctional. For example, someone with depression may often be tearful. Others may deem this as not coping, but in reality it will encourage others to offer support, which is functional.

What is deviation of ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality

someone needs to have the 6 characteristics of a well adjusted person: self attitudes, personal growth, resistance to stress, autonomy, perception of reality, environmental mastery.

Why is deviation from ideal mental health seen as a positive definition

it focuses on what people should be like rather than deviation or infrequency. - it may limit the stigma attached to abnormal behaviours and make less of a negative judgement on them within society

Why is the criteria being strict a criticism of deviation from ideal mental health definition

difficult for any individual to consistently meet all 6 criteria for ideal mental health. - so we would all be defined as abnormal at some point - makes it potentially invalid. Another issue with the criteria is that it is subjective. the criteria are quite vague and difficult to measure objectively in comparison to physical conditions. Means that any decisions based on criteria may be inconsistent

How does deviation from ideal mental health suffer from cultural relativism

many of the criteria are culture bound. - only apply to western norms and values in individualistic cultures. - may be that collectivist cultures don’t strive to meet the same criteria and therefore the definition wouldn’t be applicable and they would be defined as abnormal

What are the emotional characteristics of phobias

Excessive fear, anxiety and panic

What are the behavioural characteristics of phobias

avoidance of the stimulus which significantly interferes with the persons life. Could also include the freeze or faint response.

What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias

involves  irrational thinking. People are sometimes aware that their thinking is irrational, but this does not reduce their fear of the stimulus.

What is the two process model as an explanation of phobias

Classical condition explains how phobias are acquired and operant conditioning explains how they are maintained

How does classical conditioning explain how a phobia is initiated

someone has learned to associate the feared objected with a fear or anxiety sometime in the past. The conditioned stimulus subsequently evokes a powerful fear response characterised by avoidance of the feared objected and the emotion of fear whenever the object is encountered. In the little Albert study, Watson initiated a fear of rats in a baby by teaching him to associate the rat with a loud bang. The baby also generalised this fear of rats to other white furry animals such as rabbits. Classical conditioning tends to distinguish over time

How does operant conditioning explain how a phobias is maintained

when someone avoids their phobic stimulus, they are removing the unpleasantness of their fear and they have feelings of intense relief. They are therefore negatively reinforcing the phobia by experiencing reward (intense relief) as a result of their avoidance.

How is the behaviourist approach to explaining phobias being unable to explain all types of phobias a drawback

treatments based on this model such as systematic desensitisation are very successful with certain types of phobias - treatment is based on the behavioural assumptions of learning/Unlearning this suggests that the behavioural approach is also correct in proposing that this is how the phobia was acquired. However it is not affective for all phobias such as those that are evolutionary. Seligman suggest that some basic anxiety’s are hard wired into the brain through evolution because they provided a survival advantage to our ancestors e.g fear of heights which we still have due to genome lag. He called this biological preparedness. This suggests that the two process model tends to oversimplify the causes of mental disorders to only being present if the phobia is learnt . A hollistic approach is needed for a full explanation.

How does the diner do study provide criticism for the behaviourist approach to explaining phobias

can’t explain why someone may experience a frightening experience yet not develop a phobia for example participants in the Dinardo study. The diathesis- stress model could account for this. A diathesis means we have been born with a genetic vulnerability for a mental disorder, but it is only triggered by something stressful in the environment. Therefore association is not enough to lead to a phobia and so there must be individual differences in the development of phobias, not accounted for by the behavioural approach. It in turn suggests that the model is limited because it can’t explain the cognitive characteristics of phobias and is environmentally deterministic, not accounting for genetic factors.

What is the behavioural treatment of flooding for phobias

Putting the phobic individual in a situation where they would be forced to face their phobia. This inescapable exposure to the feared object lasts until the fear response disappears. Flooding can cure a phobia in one session as the stress hormone adrenaline eventually stops being produced, which helps establish the new stimulus-response reaction. This is because there is a limit to how long the body can sustain a fear response and it eventually disappears.

Why is flooding cost effective

only one session needed which is better than other treatments which require a therapist and a course of sessions such as CBT. Therefore it is cheaper and phobic patient is free of their symptoms quickly. However it is inappropriate for some due to intense traumatic nature. The method is not seen as unethical however trauma may lead to patient not starting or quitting treatment so has a high drop out rate. Therefore it may not be suitable for all and will not lead to a reduction in symptoms. So time and money is wasted making it less cost and time effective.

Why can flooding be seen as ineffective

as it doesn’t actually treat the underlying cause of the phobia only the symptoms displayed. Flooding only addresses the behavioural symptoms so will result symptom substitution. This is when the problem shows itself in another way through different symptoms. Therefore is suggested as a short term solution and not completely effective. However behaviourists reject this idea and claim that we don’t need to look beyond the behavioural symptoms as the symptoms are the disorder.

What are the emotional characteristics of depression

include an extremely low mood that persists for at least two weeks and usually a lot longer. They may experience a feeling of anger towards others or themselves. They are likely to feel empty and worthless and have low self-esteem.

What are the behavioural characteristics of depression

Sleep disturbances and appetite disturbances

What are the cognitive characteristics of depression

include automatic negative and irrational feelings to an otherwise normal or even positive event. They have a negative view of the world, themselves, and the future.  They catastrophise which means their thoughts go to the worst possible outcome and difficulty concentrating.

Who created a model as a cognitive explanation of depression

Ellis - ABC model and becks negative triad

What do the letters stand for in Ellis abc model

A= activating event B= beliefs (irrational or rational) C= consequences

What did Ellis belief depression was caused by

Irrational thoughts which stem from faulty ‘musturbatory’ thinking

What is musturbatory thinking

people have unrealistic beliefs where they must be do well always in order to be happy. This leads to the person being easily disappointed which can lead to depression

What practical applications does Ellis abc model have

Led to successful therapy treatments which have a 40%-50% success rate. As it changes faulty thoughts into positive ones. Suggests explanation is because of research and treatment evidence

Why is the Ellis abc model seen as reductionist h

it assumes all abnormal behaviour is caused by faulty thinking. It neglects biological factors such as genes, biochemistry ans unconscious factors. This suggests that the model tends to oversimplify the causes and only a holistic approach can be used for a full explanation.

What is a self schema

The packet of knowledge a person has about themselves

What are the components of becks negative triad

view of the self, view of the future, view of the world

What do negative self schemas lead to

Negative self schemas lead the  depressed to cognitive biases in thinking: they make an over generalised negative conclusion based on a small piece of negative feedback.they view themselves in a negative way leading to low self worth.

Why is the cognitive approaches limited explanation of depression a criticism

The cognitive approach can’t explain all aspects of depression as it can’t explain intense feelings of anger etc. this suggests the cognitive approach is not a complete explanation of depression. It also fails to consider the influence of biological factors in depression. For example there is research which indicates that genetics ans neurotransmitters particularly serotonin play a key role in the development of depression. Therefore becks theory doesn’t take a fully holistic approach to explaining depression viewing it as cognitive only.

How is the cognitive approach to explaining depression blaming the client a criticism

The cognitive explanation blames the client’s faulty thought process not the situation. For example a bullying work environment or an abusive relationship could be worsening or even causing somebody’s depression, rather than their own thought process. It also fails to explain the origins of the irrational thoughts in this process. Most of the research in this area is correlational and we therefore can’t determine wether these irrational thoughts cause depression or if a persons depression leads to a negative mindset.

How does boury evaluate beck

found that patients with depression were more likely to misinterpret information negatively (cognitive bias) and feel hopelessness about their future (negative triad). These findings support BECKS theory that patients have negative schemas which lead to overgeneralised negative thinking. Therefore there is research support to increase validity of the theory. However McINTOSH & FISHER found that individuals suffering from negative thoughts only focused on one single dimension of the triad (the self) suggesting all three parts of the triad are not necessary. Therefore the triad may not be applicable to all patients with depression.

How does cognitive behavioural therapy treat depression

Identify and alters dysfunctional and irrational thinking

How does REBT extend Ellis model

extends Ellis ABC model to ABCDE (D for dispute and E for effect). Therapist will identify and challenge irrational thoughts of patient through disputes to replace them with effective rational beliefs and attitudes.

How does march provide empirical support for the effectiveness of CBT

examined 327 adolescents with depression and looked at the effectiveness of treatments. After 9 months 81% of the antidepressants group and 81% of the CBT group had improved. However 86% of the CBT plus antidepressants group had improved. This shows that CBT is as equally effective as antidepressants.

Why is CBT not effective for patients with severe depression

it requires motivation and people with severe depression may not engage or attend sessions thus making the therapy ineffective. Also some studies show that CBT is ineffective for some with learning disabilities due to complex rational thinking and this type of therapy can not cater to a diverse range of patients. Therefore other treatments such as antidepressants may be more effective in these circumstances as they are cheaper and don’t require the same level of motivation.

What is OCD

An anxiety disorder that leads to compulsions which provide temporary relief

What are the emotional characteristics of OCD

include anxiety and distress in response to intrusive thoughts. Also experience inappropriate guilt. Most people know that their obsessions are excessive, which gives rise to the feeling of shame and embarrassment.

What are the behavioural characteristics of OCD

include actions that are repetitive, excessive and related to the obsession. Some people can avoid their compulsions by avoiding the stimulus, but others may feel compelled to carry out their compulsions regardless.

What are the cognitive characteristics of OCD

include recurrent intrusive thoughts that get obsessed over. Although people with OCD are often aware that their thoughts are excessive and unreasonable, they can’t control them.

What is the genetic explanation of OCD

OCD is polygenic, it is not caused by one single gene but by a combination of genetic variations that together cause significantly increased vulnerability. Research suggests a variation of the COMT gene is linked to OCD. COMT plays an important role in de-activating dopamine. Irregular dopamine levels are implicated in OCD COMT gene helps to balance dopamine levels. Hence, COMT gene variation may contribute to OCD as it may help to control compulsive behaviours. The SERT gene has also been linked with OCD, affecting the transport of serotonin. Lower

What is the empirical support for the genetic explanation of OCD

a meta analysis of twin studies shows that the likelihood that both monozygotic twins had OCD was 68% whereas this chance reduced to only 31% of dizygotic twins. This means that genes must  have some influence on OCD, However because results for monozygotic twins is not 100% and 50% for dizygotic twins it shows there must be some environmental influence.

What is the neural explanation of OCD

Neural explanations - low levels of serotonin cause areas in the brain such as the OFC to malfunction. These areas are responsible for sending relevant “worry signals” to the thalamus, but low levels of serotonin mean that minor worries, which would normally get ignored also get sent. The thalamus then sends signals back to the OFC, causing a “worry circuit” which is why someone with OCD obsessively repeats the same actions

What have biological explanations of OCD lead to

explanations have led to drug therapies which involve increasing serotonin levels. It could also lead to brain scans being used in the future to detect OCD risk. However the research into the role of serotonin is contradictory; some studies have found taking serotonin enhancing drugs do not always work to relieve symptoms. Therefore it is difficult to draw firm conclusions about the exact role of neurotransmitters in OCD.

How is SSRIs a biological treatment for OCD

People with OCD  have lower levels of serotonin, this keeps us calm and balances mood.SSRIs don’t increase the amount of serotonin but they allow the brain to make more use of the serotonin. In the brain serotonin is released from presynaptic nerve endings into a synapse. The serotonin then travels to receptor sites found on postsynaptic nerve ending, where it’s absorbed and takes effect. Any serotonin that’s not absorbed travels back to where it was released from and is reabsorbed. SSRIs block this reuptake, therefore allowing more serotonin to get absorbed at the intended receptor sites instead.

How are SNRIs a biological treatment of OCD

block the uptake of the neurotransmitters serotonin and noradrenaline. They are more effective than SSRIs, but they also have more side effects, so they are usually only used when SSRIs have been ineffective.

Why are drug therapies a positive treatment

Drug therapies are cheap and easy. Drug therapy is easy for patients because all they have to do is take a pill rather than give the time, effort, and motivation required for talking to a therapist. It is also a much cheaper option compared to therapy, for both the individual and the government. However the drugs do have side effects that are unpleasant which may stop people from wanting to take them. These include nausea and headaches for SSRIs and hallucinations and heart irregularities for SNRSs.

What evidence did Cromer find that contradicts the biological explanation for OCD

It seems that environmental factors also trigger or increase the risk of developing OCD. For example, Cromer et al (2007) found over half the OCD patients in their sample had a traumatic event in their past, and that OCD was more severe in those with more than one trauma.

What classifies a behaviour statistically abnormal

Anything more than two standard deviations from the mean (e.g average IQ is 100 so anyone with an IQ of less than 70 or more than 130. People with less than 70 are statically abnormal and are diagnosed with intellectual disability disorder

What is the main reason why someone with antisocial personality disorder would be judged abnormal

Their behaviour deviates from social norms

which of the following is a strength of deviation from ideal mental health

It is Comprehensive and positive

What is the difference between fear and anxiety

Fear is immediate and anxiety is long term

What is absolutist thinking also called

Black and white thinking

Maintaining constant alertness is called

Hypervigilance

A case study of learning a phobia by classical conditioning involved:

Little Albert

What reinforces avoidance in the two process model

Anxiety reduction

Which of the following is a type of dysfunctional belief in Ellis cognitive model

Musturbation

What is a limitation of becks model of depression

It doesn’t explain all aspects of depression effectively

What is a limitation of the ABC model

It can’t explain hallucinations and delusions in severe depression

Which neural system does not appear to be involved in OCD

The right parahippocampal gyrus

Which of these applies to neural explanations for OCD

Neural mechanisms may not cause OCD

What is the standard biological treatment for OCD

SSRIs

What is a commonly prescribed antidepressant and its dosage

Fluoxetine 20mg per day

Which divisions of the nervous system is divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic branches

The autonomic nervous system

The master endocrine gland is the:

Pituitary gland

What neurone carries messages from the PNS to the CNS

Sensory neuron

What is action potential

When a neuron is activated by a stimulus, the inside of a cell becomes positively charged for a split second. This creates an electrical impulse that travels down the axon towards the end of the neuron

What is hollistic theory

The theory that all parts of the brain are involved in the processing of thought and action

Where is Broca’s area located

Left frontal lobe

Damage to what area may lead to a loss of control of fine movements

Motor area

If an object was shown to the left visual field of one of sperry’s participants they would report

That there was nothing there

What is synaptic pruning

The deleting of rarely used connections in the brain

What is unmasking

The activation of secondary neural pathways to carry out new functions

A method of detecting changes in blood oxygenation and flow that occur as a result of neural activity best describes what?

fMRI

Which of the following is an example of the circadian rhythm

The sleep wake cycle

The stern and McClintock study investigated the influence of which chemicals

Pheromones

REM occurs in which phase of the sleep cycle

Stage 5

Melatonin is secreted by the:

Pineal gland

The SCN is located within which parts of the brain

Hypothalamus

Describe one biological explanation for OCD

Mutations in the SERT gene low levels of serotonin which plays a role in balancing mood which in turn may help regulate obsessive thoughts.

Mutations in the COMT gene has also been linked to OCD as it plays an important role in deactivating dopamine. Irregular dopamine levels have been linked to OCD

What is one limitation of the two processes model

Not a hollistic explanation of all phobias, phobias such as heights are wired into us for survival. They are evolutionary not learnt and are a result of a genome lag

Who provides research support for the effectiveness of CBT

March

What findings did march collect about the effectiveness of CBT

After 9 months 81% of antidepressants group and 81% of CBT group had improved. 86% of CBT plus antidepressants group had improved

What is the genetic explanation of OCD

OCD is polygenetic so isn’t caused by a single gene but a combination of genetic variation. COMT gene may be linked to OCD as this gene deactivates and balance dopamine levels. Irregular dopamine levels have been linked to OCD. SERT gene effects the transport of serotonin and low levels of serotonin has been linked to OVD as it balances mood which in turn may help to regulate mood

What is the genetic explanation of OCD

OCD is polygenetic so isn’t caused by a single gene but a combination of genetic variation. COMT gene may be linked to OCD as this gene deactivates and balance dopamine levels. Irregular dopamine levels have been linked to OCD. SERT gene effects the transport of serotonin and low levels of serotonin has been linked to OVD as it balances mood which in turn may help to regulate mood

How is the SERT gene suggested to cause OCD

SERT gene effects the transport of serotonin and low levels of serotonin has been linked to OVD as it balances mood which in turn may help to regulate mood

How is the COMT gene suggested to cause OCD

COMT gene may be linked to OCD as this gene deactivates and balance dopamine levels. Irregular dopamine levels have been linked to OCD

What research supports the genetic explanation of OCD

a meta analysis of twin studies shows that the likelihood that both monozygotic twins had OCD was 68% whereas this chance reduced to only 31% of dizygotic twins. This means that genes must have some influence on OCD, However because results for monozygotic twins is not 100% and 50% for dizygotic twins it shows there must be some environmental influence.

What is the neural explanation of OCD

low levels of serotonin cause areas in the brain such as the OFC to malfunction. These areas are responsible for sending relevant “worry signals” to the thalamus, but low levels of serotonin mean that minor worries, which would normally get ignored also get sent. The thalamus then sends signals back to the OFC, causing a “worry circuit” which is why someone with OCD obsessively repeats the same actions

How are SSRIs used to treat OCD

SSRIs don’t increase the amount of serotonin but they allow the brain to make more use of the serotonin. In the brain serotonin is released from presynaptic nerve endings into a synapse. The serotonin then travels to receptor sites found on postsynaptic nerve ending, where it’s absorbed and takes effect. Any serotonin that’s not absorbed travels back to where it was released from and is reabsorbed. SSRIs block this reuptake, therefore allowing more serotonin to get absorbed at the intended receptor sites instead.

What is the role of SNRIs in treating OCD

block the uptake of the neurotransmitters serotonin and noradrenaline. They are more effective than SSRIs, but they also have more side effects, so they are usually only used when SSRIs have been ineffective.

Why is drug treatments being cheap and easy a positive

Drug therapy is easy for patients because all they have to do is take a pill rather than give the time, effort, and motivation required for talking to a therapist. It is also a much cheaper option compared to therapy, for both the individual and the government. However the drugs do have side effects that are unpleasant which may stop people from wanting to take them. These include nausea and headaches for SSRIs and hallucinations and heart irregularities for SNRIs.