Unit 1 AP Review

reuptake

reabsorption of the neurotransmitter by the sending neuron

agonist

mimics a neurotransmitter to excite neuron firing and open receptor sites

antagonist

inhibits neuron firing, blocks reuptake, and blocks neurotransmitters from opening receptor sites

reuptake inhibitor

drugs that block the reabsorption of neurotransmitters

REM

rapid eye movement, vivid dreams occur, relaxed muscles but active body systems (paradoxical), recurring sleep stage

circadian rhythm

body’s biological clock regulating regular body rhythms (temperature or wakefulness)

insomnia

recurring problems with falling or staying asleep

narcolepsy

uncontrollable sleep attacks where one may lapse into REM sleep at inappropriate times

sleep apnea

temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

pupil

adjustable opening in center of eye through which light enters

retina

back inner surface of eye containing rods, cones, and neurons processing visual information

optic nerve

carries neural impulses from eye to brain

lens

transparent, shape-changing structure behind pupil focusing images on the retina

fovea

central focal point in retina around which cones cluster (provides sharpest most detailed vision)

rods

detect black, white, grey; sensitive to movement; peripheral and twilight vision

cones

center of retina; function in well-lit conditions; detect fine details and color

Trichromatic Theory

ratio between S-cone (blue), M-cone (green), and L-cone (red) in fovea leads to perception of other colors

Opponent-Process Theory

when we see a color, its opponent color is inhibited (red-green, yellow-blue, black-white)

feature detectors

respond to certain features of a stimulus (shape, angle, movement) (located in occipital lobe)

parallel processing

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously

gustation

sense of taste

biological psychology

the study of the biological basis of behavior, emotions, and mental processes, applying biological principles to psychological research

biopsychosocial approach

asserts health and illness are determined by the interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors

levels of analysis

framework of complementary, hierarchical perspectives—biological, psychological, and social-cultural—used to analyze any mental process or behavior

neuroplasticity

brain’s ability to change by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

EEG

amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface (function)

MEG

brain-imaging technique measuring magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity

MRI

magnetic fields and radio waves produce computer generated images of soft tissue (showing brain anatomy)

CT scan

series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by a computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure

PET

detects brain activity by displaying where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

fMRI

reveals blood flow, hence brain activity, by comparing successive MRI scans (shows brain structure and function)

lesions

tissue destruction

brain stem

central core of the brain; includes thalamus, reticular formation, pons, and medulla

hindbrain

directs essential survival functions (breathing, sleeping, etc.) and coordination and balance; includes medulla, pons, and cerebellum

midbrain

on top of brain stem connecting hindbrain and forebrain; controls motor movement and transmits auditory and visual information

forebrain

manages complex cognitive functions, sensory and associative (learning and memory) functions, and voluntary motor activities; includes cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus, and most of Limbic System

medulla

base of brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

reticular formation

nerve network traveling through brainstem into thalamus; controls arousal and filters incoming sensory

cerebellum

“little brain” at rear of brainstem; processes sensory input, coordinates movement and balance, nonverbal learning and memory

cerebral cortex

fabric of interconnected neural cells covering cerebral hemisphere; body’s ultimate control and information processing center; split into four lobes (frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal)

pons

above the medulla; coordinates movement and controls sleep

Limbic System

associated with emotions and drives; hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus, and thalamus

thalamus

relay station for incoming and outgoing sensory information (except smell); directs messages to sensory receiving areas and transmits replies to cerebellum and medulla

hypothalamus

directs maintenance activities (eating, body temp, etc.); helps govern endocrine system and is linked to emotion and reward

pituitary gland

the major endocrine gland; controls growth, development, and function of other endocrine glands; attached to base of the brain

hippocampus

processes conscious memories of facts and events for storage

amygdala

two lima bean sized neural clusters linked to emotion, fear, and aggression

corpus callosum

band of neural fiber connecting brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

split brain

when corpus callosum is severed, disconnecting communication between the hemispheres

Broca’s Area

language center located in left frontal lobs (expressive language)

Wernicke’s Area

language center located in left temporal lobe (receptive language)

cortex specialization

theory that distinct regions of the cerebral cortex are specialized to process specific types of information, behaviors, or cognitive tasks

Contralateral Hemispheric Organization

left side of brain controls right side of body and vice versa

aphasia

inability to understand speech

occipital lobe

back of the head; receives info from visual fields (primarily from opposite visual field)

temporal lobe

above the ears; auditory functions and language processing (primarily from opposite ear)

parietal lobe

top of head towards rear; receives and process sensory input for touch and body position

association areas

areas of cerebral cortex not involved in primary functions; involved in higher mental functions: learning, remembering, thinking, speaking

somatosensory cortex

front of parietal lobe processing body touch and movement (more sensitive areas project to larger brain areas)

frontal lobe

behind forehead; speaking, motor movement, judgement, and decision making

prefrontal cortex

thinking, judgement, planning, decision making, impulse control

motor cortex

initiates voluntary movement (functions controlaterally)

psychology

the scientific study of the mind and behavior, aiming to understand, explain, predict, and influence human actions and mental processes

nature

genetic, biological, and innate factors that influence an individual’s behavior, personality, and mental processes

evolutionary psychology

evolution of the mind and behavior using principles of natural selection

natural selection

nature selects those traits that best enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a specific environment

behavior genetics

power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

mutation

random error in gene replication that leads to a change

environment

every non-genetic influence around us

heredity

genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

genes

the basic physical and functional units of heredity, comprised of DNA segments that dictate biological development and influence behavioral traits

genome

completed set of DNA located within a cell’s chromosomes (complete instructions for making an organism)

nurture

environmental influences and external factors that shape an individual’s development, behavior, and personality, as opposed to innate genetic factors

eugenics

identifying “fit” and “unfit” individuals for reproductive regulation

identical twins

monozygotic; develop from a single fertilized egg that splits

fraternal twins

dizygotic; develop from two separate fertilized eggs (genetically ordinary siblings)

interaction

interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor depends on another factor

epigenetics

study of how environmental factors can change gene expression without altering the underlying DNA sequence

nervous system

the body’s primary command, control, and communication network; manages mental processes, behavior, and psychological reactions

central nervous system

-comprising of the brain and spinal cord

-primary command center of the body

-processes sensory information, controls behavior, and manages cognitive functions, emotions, and thoughts

nerves

cable-like bundles of axons in the PNS that transmit electrochemical signals between the CNS and the rest of the body

reflex

involuntary, automatic, and rapid response to a specific stimulus, occurring without conscious thought

autonomic nervous system

component of PNS that regulates involuntary bodily functions (heart rate, digestion, respiration, pupil dilation) without conscious effort

sympathetic nervous system

branch of autonomic nervous system responsible for regulating the body’s fight or flight response to stress, danger, or arousal (increases heart rate, dilated pupils, inhibited digestion)

peripheral nervous system

network of nerves outside the brain and spinal cord that connects the CNS to limbs, organs, and the skin

somatic nervous system

component of peripheral nervous system responsible for transmitting sensory information to the CNS and managing voluntary motor movements of skeletal muscles

parasympathetic nervous system

component of autonomic nervous system responsible for calming the body, conserving energy, and maintaining daily “rest and digest” functions

neurons

fundamental, specialized cell of the nervous system responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting information via electrical and chemical signals

cell body

soma; core, nucleus-containing central part of a neuron, excluding axon and dendrites

dendrites

branches to receive chemical messages to pass through the neuron

axon

tube that electrical messages travel through (surrounded by myelin sheaths)

myelin sheath

fatty substance encasing most neurons that protects and insulates the axon (speeds up signals)

synapse

specialized gap between two neurons where chemical or electrical signals are transmitted

glial cells

non-neuronal brain cells that provide essential support, protection, and maintenance for neurons, acting as the nervous system’s “housekeepers”

reflex arc

the neural pathway mediating an automatic, involuntary response to a stimulus, typically bypassing conscious brain processing for speed

sensory neurons

specialized nerve cells that convert external stimuli (touch, light, etc.) into electrical impulses

motor neurons

specialized nerve cells that carry signals away from the CNS to muscles and glands, initiating movement and voluntary or involuntary behaviors

interneurons

specialized neurons located entirely within the CNS that act as intermediaries, connecting sensory neurons to motor neurons

action potential

acts as the fundamental electrical signal for communications between neurons, firing only when the membrane potential reaches a specific threshold (all or none)

all or nothing principle

a neuron fires completely or not at all, maintaining a consistent, maximum response strength regardless of the stimulus intensity