Sixth Set of Flashcards

Describe two aspects that make experimentation of humans difficult.

Variability: Human population have
high genetic and environmental
variability.
Psychological Factors: Psychological
aspect of administering a treatment.
Placebo
Nocebo (side effects)
Ethical considerations: Minimize the
possibility that subjects will be
harmed by their participation.

What are the normal physical characteristics of urine?

Color:
Pale yellow to amber color
(Urochrome or urobilinogen).
Odor:
Slightly aromatic
pH: Ranges from 4.5 - 8.0.
Average is 6.0.
Turbidity:
Normal urine is transparent or clear
Specific gravity:
the relative proportions of dissolved solids in relationship to the total volume of the
specimen

What are the normal chemical components of urine?

• Water
Nitrogenous waste
-Urea (protein metabolism)
-Uric acid (metabolite of purine breakdown)
-Creatinine (muscle metabolism)
• Ions
• Sodium
• Potassium
• Phosphate
• Sulfate ions
Variable amounts of:
Calcium, magnesium and bicarbonate ions.

Presence of glucose in urine

Glycosuria, cause by diabetes mellitus

Presence of bile pigments/bilirubin in urine

Bilirubinuria, caused by Hepatitis A/cirrhosis

Presence of Nitrates in urine

Infection (E.coli), bladder infection

Presence of ketone bodies in urine

Ketonuria, caused by starvation or diabetes mellitus

Presence of albumin in urine

Albuminuria, caused by high protein intake, pregnancy, kidney trauma, hypertension, glomerulonephritis

Presence of hemoglobin in urine

Hemoglobinuria, caused by hemolytic anemias, transfusion reactions, renal diseases

Presence of RBCs in urine

Hematuria, caused by kidney stones or tumors

Presence of WBCs/Pus in urine

Pyuria, caused by UTIs

Presence of casts/cell fragments in urine

Hyaline: changes in pH and Na+

WBC: inflammation

RBC: glomerulonephritis

What is urinalysis?

To evaluate the function of the kidneys we
use a non-invasive method consist in a physical, chemical and microscopic analysis of the Urine.

Analysis of urine :
➢ Physical characteristic of the urine.
Color, smell, pH, turbidity, specific gravity.
➢Presence of abnormal components (organic/inorganic).
Glucose, Hb, Nitrates, WBCs, RBCs, Albumin,.. etc

What system is evaluated in urinalysis?

Urinary system

What is a clinical trial?

How safe and effective are new drugs,
treatments o devices in humans. research studies in which researchers assign participants to get one or more interventions to test what happens in people also called interventional studies.

What are observational studies?

research studies in which researchers simply collect information (called data) from participants or look at data that was already collected. The data may be about participants’ health, habits, or environments. researchers do not assign participants to get an intervention. If there is an intervention, participants were already using it as part of their regular health care or daily life

What is a primary source of information?

the original, firsthand documentation of study data, such as patient records, raw lab results, and investigator observations. It is the "source data" (or raw data) serving as the foundation for research, offering immediate evidence of a study's methodology and results

Why are clinical trials important?

cornerstone of medical advancement, essential for evaluating the safety and efficacy of new drugs, devices, and diagnostic tools before they are approved for public use. They offer significant value by improving patient outcomes, providing early access to cutting-edge treatments, and establishing new standards of care.

Why are primary sources of information important in the healthcare field?

they provide unmediated, firsthand, and raw evidence—such as raw data from clinical trials, case studies, and original patient assessments. They enable healthcare professionals to make evidence-based decisions, evaluate the original methodology, and ensure data validity/reliability, preventing the distortion of findings often found in secondary summaries

What is a peer-reviewed system in clinical trials?

a critical evaluation process where independent experts assess the design, ethics, and methodology of a study to ensure it is robust, safe, and valid, typically before publication or funding. It acts as a quality filter and improvement mechanism, often involving single-blind, double-blind, or open peer review.

Common format of a peer-reviewed article published in a primary source

Title
•Author(s)
•Abstract
•Introduction
•Materials and Methods
•Results
•Discussion/Conclusion
•References

Describe the categories of clinical studies.

1. Clinical trials are research studies in which researchers assign participants to get one or more interventions to test what happens in people. Because of this, clinical trials are also called interventional studies. Often, the intervention is investigational, which means it is not approved for doctors to prescribe to people.

2. Observational studies are research studies in which researchers simply collect information (called data) from participants or look at data that was already collected. The data may be about participants’ health, habits, or environments. In observational studies, researchers do not assign participants to get an intervention. If there is an intervention, participants were already using it as part of their regular health care or daily life.

EEG graph

Brain waves

Beta, Alpha, Theta, Delta

Reaction Time graph

Myotatic/Spinal reflex graph

Biofeedback Control by subject (Heart rate/EDA)

EDA Graph

Biofeedback graph

Fatigue graph

EMG Graph

EOG Graph

Dipole model of the eye and EOG

ECG graph

Pulmonary Function Test graph (spirogram)

EEG units

Microvolts (uV)

Brain waves (eeg freq) units

Hz

Reaction time units

Sec or milliseconds (ms)

Myotatic/spinal reflex graph units

Time: ms

Amplitude: mV or no units

EDA units

Microsiemens (uS)

Biofeedback units

Heart rate: bpm

EDA: uS (microsiemens)

Temp: C

Fatigue units

Time: sec

Force: kg or mV

EMG units

MV or kg(force)

EOG units

mV

dipole model of the eye and EOG units

mV

ECG units

mV

Pulmonary function test (spirogram) units

Liters (L)

What systems are evaulated in eeg?

Nervous

What systems are evaulated in ecg?

Cardiothoracic and nervous

What systems are evaulated in emg?

Nervous, muscular

What systems are evaulated in eog?

Muscular, nervous

What systems are evaulated in pulmonary function test?

Respiratory

What systems are evaulated in reaction time?

Muscular and nervous