issues and debates

Gender Bias AO1

“When psychological theory offers a view that does not justifiably represent the experience or behaviour of men/women”

Psychology has started as a male dominated field. So most gender bias is unfair to women. This means gender bias results in research not representing up to half the population.

Beta bias leads to androcentrism/gynocentrism → using male behaviour as the standard all behaviour is compared on. Perpetuates stereotypes and leads to non-male behaviour being seen as abnormal. This disvalues other gender experiences/misdiagnosis

Two types:

Alpha: exaggerates differences (Freud and phallic phase, where girls identify less than boys with fathers, so girls depend on men for moral development)

Beta: minimises difference (fight or flight assumed for all, but taylor saw women tended to show tend/befriend due to higher oxytocin levels)

Gender Bias AO3

Negative implication is that they support stereotypes: For instance, Darwin established the theory of sexual selection to explain partner preference, suggesting women are ‘choosy’, relying on men for resources as in a relationship they make the greatest investment (up to 9 months of pregnancy). Yet in the modern age, these views are outdated. Many relationships are not solely for the purpose of having and raising children, and women can be equally as successful as men, meaning they are no longer reliant on them for resources. Only recently these views have been challenged, with belief that women are just as choosy as men. However, due to the lasting belief of Darwin’s theory, the stereotype may still stand, resulting in a misunderstanding and invalid view of women in relationships. IMPACTS: policy, diagnosis, employment, education

Gender biased research in psychology faces an issue of validity. This is as some psychologists believe that males and females are not significantly different, and that research methodology is what leads to the appearance of these differences. For example, Joel published a study refuting the existence of the commonly believed difference in men and women’s verbal (which women were believed superior at) and spatial abilities (which women were believed to be inferior at). She used brain scanning and saw no such difference. Esp. As findings which show no difference aren’t often published - publication bias, need to use good methodology to prevent invalid findings influencing public perception.

Psychologists are making an effort to address gender bias in research. As mentioned above, methodology can often lead to the appearance of supposed differences in males and females. This is especially as all people will have some bias or preconception about the genders, whether consciously or not. It is not fully possible for researchers to maintain a ‘critical distance’ between themselves and the subject matter. Thus, understanding this, researchers acknowledge that this is a part of psychological research. In a process known as reflexivity, researchers will include reflection on how their own gender-related experiences may have informed and influenced the research process and results. As such, reflexivity helps to prevent those reading research to blindly accept a difference as fact, and contextualises differences found. ASW better sampling, pre-registration to avoid publication bias

idiographic and nomothetic AO1

NOMOTHETIC:

Nomo means “laws” in Greek. Based on quantitative data which is subjected to inferential stats, letting us make inferences about general laws in human behaviour. Biological approach uses scientific methods to identify trends and form causal laws, e.g. low MAOA causing aggression. Systems of diagnosis like DSM and ICD are all nomothetic

IDIOGRAPHIC:

Idios means “own” in greek. They believe everyone is a tabula rasa (blank slate), and we are all individual and unique and universal laws never truly apply. Mostly anti-science, and uses qualitative data. Uses case studies, journal entries, thematic analysis. Humanistic approaches suggests we are all unique so using universal laws is reducing the complexities of human nature.

Idiographic and Nomothetic AO3

False Distinction: no ‘one best way’, need to combine both. I.e. biological approach still uses case studies, humanistic approach still has universal laws (hierarchy)

NOMOTHETIC:

Very scientific: relies on experimental methods, control, etc. Allows replicability. supports psych as a science. Can help more people e.g. SSRI, since all human behaviour is universal. Talking therapies aren’t accessible for everyone. Helping improve lives of people

IDIOGRAPHIC:

Unscientific: uses qualitative methods, uncontrolled, not replicable.

BUT case studies can generate further research: e.g. KF challenged the MSM, promoting the existence of WMM.

Cultural Bias AO1

Culture bias: a tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the lens of one’s own culture

Often leads to ethnocentrism: seeing one culture as superior: e.g. Britain intelligence is often tests ‘against the clock’, so in cultures like Uganda where intelligence is slow, careful and deliberate thought (Wober), they would view the British system as thoughtlessness/rashness. so could lead to stereotypes and ethnocentrism, creates limited access to jobs and education (marginalisation) causing a self fulfilling prophecy, impacts self view and self esteem.

Imposed etic - looking at behaviour from outside of a given culture: SS

Universality - characteristics applied to all

Cultural relativism - norms, values, ethics, moral standards only understood within specific social and cultural contexts, should use an emic approach by adopting culturally relative test to learn how specific cultures view intelligence.

Emic - specific to culture

reducing cultural bias

Sensitivity to cultural norms and values when designing research and reporting findings, use reflexivity throughout to acknowledge own personal biases.

Avoid sweeping generalisation from other unrepresentative samples, assuming universal norms across cultures (etic)

Should use an emic approach - study a single culture to understand that cultures subjective experiences. Carry out cross-cultural research to understand differences between cultures. Use native/indigenous research

Cultural relativity: eating behaviour: evolutionary theory suggests e.g. salt sugar fat is universal, but evidence suggests eating preferences are culturally relative i.e. spicy food in india, no shellfish for jews

Aggression: aggression is innate, linked to high testosterone levels, however, culturally relative (Amish community and North/South America)

Culture Bias AO3

A major strength of addressing cultural bias is that psychology has moved towards cultural relativism, the idea that behaviour should be understood within the cultural context in which it occurs. This acknowledges diversity and increases research validity. Furthermore, the rise of indigenous psychologies—such as Afrocentric psychology—provides theories that emerge from within a cultural group rather than being imposed externally. This helps counter the dominance of Western perspectives and gives a more complete understanding of human behaviour.

However, an evaluative issue is that concerns about cultural bias may sometimes be overstated. With increased global communication and cultural mixing, some argue cultures are becoming more similar—a concept known as cultural convergence. This means that differences between cultures may not be as pronounced as once believed, and universal principles may still exist. Nevertheless, researchers must remain cautious and avoid assuming that global similarity applies in all contexts.

Finally, a negative implication of cultural bias is that crosscultural research itself may inadvertently create new biases. For example, translating materials or using interpreters may introduce misunderstandings or misrepresent participants’ responses, reducing reliability. Likewise, researchers from Western academic institutions often control the research agenda, meaning that even studies labelled “crosscultural” may still reflect Western assumptions (a form of subtle ethnocentrism).

Free will and Determinism AO1

Concerning whether or not our thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are freely chosen or determined by factors outside of our control.

Free will is former: the view that humans can make conscious, voluntary choices and are not completely controlled by internal/external factors: e.g. humanistic psychologists believe in personal agency (Roger’s and Maslow)

Determinism is latter: 3 types

Biological - genetics, brain structure, hormones, like MAOA (Brunner) - hard determinism

Environmental - shaped by learning and experiences, idea all behaviour is a result of reinforcement histories (Skinner)

Psychic - driven by unconscious conflicts, early experiences, and instincts (psychodynamic approach) - hard

Free Will and Determinism AO3

A key strength of determinism is that it has led to successful treatments. For example, biological determinism underpins drug therapies for disorders like depression and OCD, improving quality of life for many people. Deterministic models allow psychologists to develop testable hypotheses, improving the scientific status of psychology. However, a major criticism is that hard determinism may remove moral responsibility, raising ethical concerns. If behaviour is entirely determined, it becomes difficult to hold individuals accountable for actions such as crime, which conflicts with legal and societal expectations.

Free will, on the other hand, is appealing because it aligns with everyday experiences of personal autonomy. Research in positive psychology suggests that believing in free will is associated with better mental health, higher self-efficacy, and greater motivation. However, free will is criticised for being unfalsifiable, as it cannot be scientifically tested. Libet’s research on brain activity suggests that readiness potentials appear before conscious awareness of decision-making, challenging the reality of free will. This implies decisions may be initiated by unconscious processes, supporting at least partial determinism.

Soft Determinism is the most realistic approach, behaviour is caused by certain experiences or factors, but we are still able to make choices within restraints. For instance, our behaviour in an exam is based on our choices but shaped by our ability, past learning, stress level etcetera. It is used by the cognitive approach, esp. CBT: involves identifying maladaptive thoughts (deterministic influences) but also helps clients make choices about how to interpret and respond to situations. Thus practical applicability.

Ultimately, it has strong implications for science and society as it shapes how we explain, predict, respond to human behaviour. Together these perspectives guide how society approaches issues like criminal justice education and mental health, raising q’s of how much behaviour is truly within our control, and policies balancing personal choice/external influences.