Genetics Lab Final
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66 Terms
What are the components of a DNA nucleotide?
A phosphate group, deoxyribose sugar, and a nitrogenous base.
What is the difference between the 5′ and 3′ ends of DNA?
The 5′ end has a free phosphate group, while the 3′ end has a free hydroxyl (-OH) group.
Why is DNA said to be “antiparallel”?
The two strands run in opposite directions (one 5′ → 3′, the other 3′ → 5′).
What are the four nitrogenous bases in DNA?
Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G).
Which bases are purines?
Adenine (A) and Guanine (G).
Which bases are pyrimidines?
Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T).
How many hydrogen bonds form between A and T?
2 hydrogen bonds.
How many hydrogen bonds form between C and G?
3 hydrogen bonds.
What is a phosphodiester bond?
A covalent bond linking nucleotides along the sugar-phosphate backbone.
What holds the two DNA strands together?
Hydrogen bonds between complementary bases.
What does PCR stand for?
Polymerase Chain Reaction.
What is the purpose of PCR?
To amplify (make many copies of) DNA.
What happens during denaturation?
DNA strands separate at high temperature (~95°C).
What happens during annealing?
Primers bind to complementary DNA sequences.
What happens during extension?
Taq polymerase adds nucleotides to build new DNA strands.
What is the role of primers in PCR?
They provide a starting point for DNA synthesis.
What is Taq polymerase?
A heat-stable enzyme that synthesizes DNA.
What are dNTPs?
Free nucleotides used to build new DNA strands.
Why is Taq polymerase used instead of normal DNA polymerase?
It can withstand high temperatures during denaturation.
What does CRISPR do?
It edits DNA by cutting at specific sequences.
What is Cas9?
An enzyme that cuts DNA.
What is guide RNA (gRNA)?
A molecule that directs Cas9 to a specific DNA sequence.
What are GMOs?
Organisms whose DNA has been altered using genetic engineering.
Give one application of GMOs.
Disease-resistant crops or insulin production.
What is GFP?
Green Fluorescent Protein that glows under UV light.
Why do organisms glow under UV light?
GFP absorbs UV light and emits visible green light.
What is the purpose of fluorescent dyes in DNA labs?
To visualize DNA or proteins.
What is mitosis?
Division of a cell into two identical daughter cells.
What happens in prophase?
Chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane breaks down.
What happens in metaphase?
Chromosomes line up in the middle.
What happens in anaphase?
Sister chromatids separate.
What happens in telophase?
Two nuclei form.
What is the law of segregation?
Alleles separate during gamete formation.
What is the law of independent assortment?
Genes assort independently of one another.
What is a Punnett square?
A tool used to predict genetic outcomes.
What is a genotype?
The genetic makeup (e.g., Aa).
What is a phenotype?
The observable trait.
What is incomplete dominance?
Heterozygous phenotype is a blend (red + white = pink).
What is codominance?
Both alleles are fully expressed (e.g., AB blood type).
What is variable expressivity?
Traits show different degrees of expression.
What is penetrance?
The proportion of individuals showing a trait.
What is the ratio for AaBb × AaBb?
9:3:3:1.
What is a test cross?
Crossing with a homozygous recessive organism.
What ratio does a test cross produce (dihybrid)?
1:1:1:1
What is the multiplication rule?
Multiply probabilities of independent events.
What is a karyotype?
A picture of chromosomes arranged in pairs.
What is Down syndrome?
Trisomy 21 (extra chromosome 21).
What is Turner syndrome?
XO (missing one X chromosome)
What is Klinefelter syndrome?
XXY.
What alleles control blood type?
IA, IB, and i.
Which alleles are codominant?
IA and IB.
Which allele is recessive?
i
What blood type is IAIB?
AB.
What blood type is ii?
O
What determines blood type?
Antigens on red blood cells.
Why is diagram interpretation important?
Many questions require applying concepts visually.
What type of questions should you expect?
Multi-step, application-based problems.
Why is memorization alone not enough?
You must apply concepts to new scenarios.
At which stage of PCR do primers bind to the DNA template?
During the annealing stage
What are the stages of PCR?
Denaturation (separation of DNA at high temperatures), annealing (primers bind at this point), and elongation (Taq polymerase adds dNTPs in order to build a new strand).
CRISPR knockout with small insertions/deletions uses
NHEJ
Components of the CRISPR Cas9 process
Cas9 endonuclease (molecular scissors), guide RNA (gRNA), and a target PAM sequence
In the DNA Glow Lab, the glowing effect occurs because the DNA-dye binds to
DNA through hydrogen bonding between bases
How do you calculate the total magnification of a microscope?
Multiply the magnification power of the eyepiece (ocular lens) by the magnification power of the objective lens. Total Magnification = Eyepiece Lens x Objective Lens
If primers bind to the wrong region, what happens?
Incorrect DNA amplified. PCR specificity depends on primers binding to the correct target sequence.
Based on the GMO experiment, how can you tell a product has been genetically modified?
It contains both the control band (like tubulin and actin) and active markers, like 35S. The control confirms that DNA and PCR worked properly, while the 35S band specifically indicates a GMO sequence.