Biology Lab Practical 2

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Sporophyte

A multicellular diploid (2n) generation

Gametophyte

A multicellular haploid (n) generation

Nonvascular seedless plant phyla:

Mosses - Bryophyta

Liverworts - Hepatophyta

Hornworts - Anthocerophyta

Vascular seedless plant phyla:

Club mosses - Lycophyta

Ferns, horsetails, and whisk ferns - Monilophyta

Vascular naked seed plant (gymnosperm) phyla:

Conifers - Coniferophyta

Cycads - Cydadophyta

Ginkos - Ginkophyta

Gnetophytes - Gnetophyta

Vascular seed plants with fruits and flower (angiosperm) are phylum __ and include __

Anthophyta; monocots and eudicots

Non-vascular and some vascular seedless plant cycle

Meiosis produces spores within a sporangium located on the mature sporophyte plant. Spores germinate and develop into gametophytes. The gametophytes produce gametes in organs called archegonia (egg) and antheridia (sperm). Sperm and egg unite to form a zygote via fertilization. This develops into a mature sporophyte plant.

Polytrichum

Moss specimen. The brown and green is the haploid gametophyte. The antenna-things are diploid sporophyte.

Mnium

Mature moss specimen. The spores are ALWAYS haploid

Archegonia

Part of the moss life cycle. This is a mature gametophyte and comes from the female gametophyte, making it haploid.

Antheridia

Part of the moss life cycle. This is a mature gametophyte and comes from the male gametophyte, making it haploid.

Moss life cycle

Heterosporous. Water required for sperm to transport egg.

Marchantia

A type of liverwort. The macroscopic view looks like a bunch of boogers with brown noodles. The spores are haploid and the sporophyte is diploid.

Anthoceros

A type of hornwort. The haploid spores are stores inside the diploid capsules.

Vascular seedless plants

Some species in this group and all seed plants exhibit heterospory

Microsporangium produces microspores through meiosis

Megasporangium produces megaspores through meiosis

These products develop into individual mature gametophytes that produce gametes (sperm or egg) which unite to form a zygote via fertilization

Zygote turns into mature plant

Fern (vascular seedless plant) cycle

Note that this is homospory

Water is required for sperm transport to the egg

Selaginella

A type of club moss, which is a vascular seedless plant

This is known as the ‘resurrection fern,’ since it comes back alive after given water

This is a heterosporic species

Note Microspore and Megaspore

Spores are always haploid

Equisetum

A type of horsetail, which is a vascular seedless plant

The pieces are internodes, the connectors are nodes, and the top is the strobilus

The hanging parts are sporangium and the dots inside are spores

Ferns

A type of vascular seedless plant

Starts as a curly brown thing(?) called a frond

Made of leaves called blades, a stem called rhizome, and roots

Has sori on blades

Individual sporangia

Groups of these make Sori

Located on fern leaves

Fern Gametophyte

Most important parts are the Archegonia, Antheridia, Rhizoids, and Sporophyte (‘sprout’)

The gametophyte is haploid

The sporophyte is diploid

Keep the fern life cycle in mind, the arc. and anth. show up in the middle of the gametophyte stage and the sprout shows up near the beginning of the sporophyte stage

Fern Rhizome

Most important parts are the xylem, phloem and epidermis

Plant life cycle

Multicellular diploid and haploid stages

Gametes produced by mitosis (n → n)

Spores produced by meiosis (2n → n)

Homosporogy

One type of sporangia in the sporophyte generation

One type of spore type in gametophyte generation

Single plant fertilizing itself

Heterospory

Two distinct sporangia types in sporophyte generation

Two distinct spore types in gametophyte generation

Increased outcrossing (genetic variety from two different plants combining genetics)

Xylem

In vascular plants, this transports water and minerals, and provides structural support via lignen

One-way flow, from roots upward

Phloem

In vascular plants, this transports products of photosynthesis (carbs, fats, proteins)

Two-way flow

Commonalities of seed plants

A seed consisting of embryo and nutrients surrounded by a protective coat

Sporophyte generation is dominant - reduced gametophytes

Heterospory - production of two spore types

Ovules - structure that develops into a seed following fertilization

Pollen - structure that develops from a microspore into a male gametophyte

Cycadophyta

One of the four phyla of gymnosperm

In lab, we observed the sago palm (mario-pineapple-looking thing)

Ginkophyta

One of the four phyla of gymnosperm

In lab, we observed the maidenhair tree (fans)

Gnetophyta

One of the four phyla of gymnosperm

In lab, we observed the Welwitschia and Mormon Tea (big leave with pines in desert)

The Mormon Tea is also called Ephedra, which produces ephedrine

Coniferophyta

One of the four phyla of gymnosperm

Includes pine, juniper, hemlock, cedar cypress, redwood

Pine Female Megastrobili

The much bigger of the two cone reproductive structures

Female, ovulate cones

Pine Male Microstrobili

The much smaller of the two cone reproductive structures

Male, staminate cones

Megastrobilus Microscopy

The pointy parts are the scales and the pink sacs are the ovules

Microstrobilus Microscopy

The large blue sacs are microsporangium and they hold pollen grains

Pine Pollen Grains

Contain gametophyte (pollen tube) and haploid sperm

Note sacci, which helps the wind carry pollen

Monocot

One of the two main classes of angiosperms

Has one cotyledon

Parallel leaf veins

Floral organs usually in multiples of 3

ex. corn, wheat, pineapple

Eudicot

One of the two main classes of angiosperms

Has two cotyledons

Net-pattern leaf veins

Floral organs usually in multiples of 4-5

ex. blueberry, strawberry, potato

Cotyledon

The first embryonic leaves to emerge from a germinating seed

Gymosperm Life Cycle

Angiosperm Anatomy

Most important parts are:

Stamen (male organ) - Anther (produces/releases pollen), Filament

Pistil (female organ) - Stigma (catches/holds/hydrates pollen), Style (path for pollen tubes), Ovary (becomes fruit)

*note that this is monocot because the veins are parallel

Lily Ovary Cross Section

Note that fruits come from the fertilized (ripened) ovary and seeds come from the ovules (inside the ovary)

Angiosperm Life Cycle

Note that double fertilization results in diploid zygote and triploid endosperm

Simple Fruit

Formed from one ovary

One of the three types of fruit forming methods

ex. tomato, cucumber, blueberry, orange

Aggregate Fruit

Formed from several ovaries in a single flower

One of the three types of fruit forming methods

ex. strawberry, blackberry, rasberry

Multiple Fruit

Formed from ovaries of many flowers

One of the three types of fruit forming methods

ex. pineapple

Fruits

Developed from fertilized (ripened) ovary

Eudicot Example

Has two cotyledons (black-eyed peas)

The bottom arrows are pointing to the cotyledons (embryonic leaves), which are a food source for the embryo

Monocot Example

Has one cotyledon (corn)

The arrow is pointing to the cotyledon (embryonic leaf), which is a food source for the embryo

Fungi

Eukaryotic heterotrophs that digest complex food substrates via absorptive heterotrophy. The characteristic structure of most these is a mass of filaments called a mycelium. One of these thread like filaments is called a hypha. In some of these, the hyphae are not divided and contain many nuclei (coenocytic), in others the hyphae are divided by septa and form a chain of cells. In both, the cell membrane is covered by a cell wall composed of chitin.

Fungus Life Cycle

Zygomycota Life Cycle

Chromosome # of zygosporangium after plasmogamy - Heterokaryotic (n+n), multiple haploid nuclei

Chromosome # of zygosporangium after karyogamy - Diploid

Chromosome # of the spores after meiosis - Haploid

Rhizopus after Karyogamy

This is the zygosporangia after karyogamy in zygomycota

Contains multiple diploid nuclei

The hyphae is in the background

Rhizopus after Meiosis

This is the sporangia after meiosis in zygomycota

Contains multiple haploid spores

The hyphae is in the background

Ascomycota Life Cycle

Important terms are Ascocarp (fruiting structure), Ascus (singular)/Asci (plural)

The chromosome # of the asci after plasmogamy is dikaryotic (n+n), two haploid nuclei

The chromosome # of the asci after karyogamy is a single diploid nucleus

The chromosome # of the ascospores after meiosis is a single haploid nucleus

There are 8 ascospores per ascus after mitosis

Sordaria

A type of ascomycota

The pear shaped things are ascocorp

Inside the ascocarp are ascospores

These sit on top of the blue squiggles, the hyphae

Peziza

A type of ascomycota

Also called “cup fungus”

The large blue cylinders are ascus and filled with the pink ascospores

Penicillium

A type of ascomycota

The hand structures are conidophores, and the small dots on the ends are conidia, which are asexually reproduced

Conidia

Made in the ascomycota cycle asexually

They are produced via mitosis in the asexual part of the ascomycota life cycle. This insures that the chromosome number in each spore stays haploid. This is essentially cloning, AKA no genetic diversity. This is done when the organism is having trouble finding a complimentary mating type (chud)

Morels

These belong to the ascomycota phylum

Basidiomycota Life Cycle

Important terms are basidioma (fruiting structure), basidium (hold basidiospores), and basidiospores (grow on basidium)

The chromosome # of basidium after plasmogamy are dikaryotic (n+n); two haploid nuclei

The chromosome # of basidium after karygamy are single diploid (2n) nucleus

The chromosome # of basidiospores after meiosis are single haploid (n) nucleus

There are 4 basidiospores per basidium after meiosis

Coprinus

A type of basidiomycota

The farther picture is a cross section of basidiocarp (fruiting structure)

The closer picture shows the basidium which each hold 4 haploid basidiospores

Lichen

A mutualistic symbiotic relationship between a photosynthetic microorganism (phycobiont) and a fungal hyphae (mycobiont)

These are associations of fungus and photosynthetic microbe. This microbe provides organic compounds via photosynthesis, the fungus provides minerals/water

Morphologies of Lichen

Crustose - encrusting

Foliose - leaf-like, no branching

Fruticose - shrubbery-like, extensive branching

Lichen Thallus

The fungus (mycobiont) is the blue squiggles inside; this receives organic compounds

The algae (phychobiont) is the pink walls; this receives minerals/water

Mycorrhizae

A mutualistic symbiotic association between a plant root and fungal hyphae. The plants provide organic compounds and the fungus increases the uptake of water and nutrients. Some may supply growth hormone, microbe resistance, and drought/temp tolerance to the plant, as well as communication between plants in a shaded area.

There are two types: entomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae

Ectomycorrhizae

Hyphae wraps around plant roots without penetrating them. Most the fungal partners are basidiomycetes or ascomycetes. Some of these have economic importance, such as truffles.

Endomycorrhizae

This penetrates into the plant root’s cells

Basidiomycota examples

COME BACK

Bryophyta

Also known as Mosses

Nonvascular and seedless

Includes Polytrichum, Mnium, Archegonia, Antheridia

Hepatophyta

Also known as Liverworts

Nonvascular and seedless

Includes Marchantia

Anthocerophyta

Also known as Hornworts

Nonvascular and seedless

Includes Anthoceros

Lycophyta

Also known as Club Mosses

Vascular and seedless

Includes Selaginella

Monilophyta

Also known as Ferns, Horsetails, and Whisk Ferns

Vascular and seedless

Includes Equisetum (HT),

Ferns - Sori made of sporangia, gametophyte (antheridia, archegonia, rhizomes, sporophyte/sprout)

Blastula

The hollow ball of cells formed early in embryonic development in Animalia

Collagen

The most abundant protein in animal cells that assists with communication between the outside and inside of the cell and attaching them to other cells

Porifera

Name means “pore/opening” “bearing”; AKA sponges

Asymmetrical, sessile filter feeders

Specimens we observed include wool sponges

Has no true tissues

Spicules

The internal support structures found in Porifera (sponges), function as an endoskeleton

Cnidaria

Name means “nettle/scratch” “-related to”

Aquatic animals with two germ layers (dipoblastic), have radial symmetry, and unique stinging cells called cnidocytes used for defense and prey capture

They have two body plans, medusa and polyp

Specimens we observed include obelia, hydra, and coral

*note that live coral secretes an exoskeleton while sponges have an endoskeleton

Polyp colony

One of the two body forms of Obelia (part of Cnidaria)

Polyp phases are sessile, and a colony of these resembles a tree. The colony has feeding and reproductive polyp. The feeding polyp is the wavy bristles on top and feeds (duh). The reproductive polyp gives rise to the medusa phase of the organism

Medusa form

One of the two body forms of Obelia (part of Cnidaria)

These are motile and have a dome-like structure with tentacles. They are born from reproductive polyp, float away, and later undergo sexual reproduction to produce new polyps

Polyp budding

The asexual reproduction process of a Hydra (a type of Cnidaria) polyp

Note that this is not a colony like Obelia!! This is an individual!!! But they’re both polyps!! OKAY!!!

Platyhelminthes

Name means “flat” “worm”

These are flattened dorsoventrally and are acoelomates with three germ layers (tripoblastic) with tissues arranged into organ systems

These were the first to exhibit bilateral symmetry and are protostomes

These rely on diffusion across their thin ‘skin’ (cuticles) for nutrients, gas, and waste transport

Specimens we observed include planarian, fluke, and tapeworm

Planarian

A part of the platyhelminthes phylum

These are free-living and eat by swallowing food through mouth and pharynx (tube like thing)

*Pay close attention to shape compared to other flatworms: Pink stain, dark branching gastrovascular cavity, arrow-shaped head with eyespots (ganglia; sense light/dark/shadow)

Fluke

A part of the platyhelminthes phylum

These are parasitic and choose mammals as hosts, living in their intestines and absorbing pre-digested nutrients

*Pay close attention to shape compared to other flatworms: flat, leaf-shaped body, has anterior sucker

Tapeworm

A part of the platyhelminthes phylum

These are parasitic and choose vertebates as hosts, living in their intestines and absorbing pre-digested nutrients

*Pay close attention to shape compared to other flatworms: pink stain, distinct proglottid segments (what arrows are pointing to, these are hermaphroditic/containing both sperm and egg, and break off once fertilized to become new worms), scolex with spiked opening

Syndermata

Name means “confluent” “skin”; AKA rotifers (what we observed in lab)

These are tripoblastic, pseudocoelomate, bilateral, and protostome

These have organ systems including an alimentary canal, they are found in fresh water, marine systems, and soil

Important body structures: corona (wheels in food), mastax (food crusher), stomach

One class of female rotifers reproduce via pathenogenesis (no fert.)

Parthenogenesis

The process that occurs in a certain class of all-female rotifers (part of syndermata phylum), where an egg develops into an offspring without fertilization

Advantages: no need to find a mate for reproducting

Disadvantages: No genetic outcrossing, no genetic variety

Mollusca

Name means “soft”

These are ceolomates, tripoblastic, bilateral, protostomes

They have soft, unsegmented bodies that can be divided into a mantle, visceral mass, and foot

Most of these are marine, but there are some terrestrial and freshwater forms

Specimen we observed include bivalves, gastropods, and cephalopods

Bivalves

Part of the mollusca phylum

Includes clams

Uses siphons to filter feed with gills

Primarily feed with their gills and their 2 shells provide protection

Gastropods

Part of the mollusca phylum, name means “stomach” “foot”

Includes snails

Terrestrial species have lungs

Primarily feed with their radula, and have 1 shell that provides protection

Cephalopods

Part of the mollusca phylum, name means “head” “foot”

Includes squid and octopus

Foot modified into tentacles, uses siphons for jet propulsion

Primarily feed with their beaks, and have a mantle as protective structure

Annelida

Name means “ring”; AKA segmented worms

These are coelomate, tripoblastic, bilateral, protostome

Specimen we observed include earthworms, clamworms (Nereis), and leeches

Earthworm

Part of the annelida phylum

Free living

Wet appearance, corrugated surface, light pink/brown color

Cross section shows coelom, U-shaped intestine, and 2 sets of muscles for locomotion

Clamworm

Part of the annelida phylum; AKA Nereis

Free living

Segments have bristles that look feather-like, light blue color

Earthworm Cross Section

This cross section shows coelom, U-shaped intestine, and 2 sets of muscles for locomotion

Important parts are the circular muscles, longitudinal muscles, and coelom

Leeches

Part of the annelida phylum

These are parasitic and feed primarily on vertebrates

To make sure hosts don’t sense their presence, they release an anesthetic in their saliva, and to avoid blood clots while feeding, they release a blood thinner/anticoagulant

Posterior sucker is larger and more cup-shaped than anterior, cross-section shows testes are punctuate dots

Annelid vs Tapeworm Segments

Annelid’s segments are integrated, meaning they work in concert and are connected by blood vessels, digestive tract, and nerve cord

Tapeworms proglottids are independent of each other. They are basically reproductive units. A single proglottid can break off and develop into another organism

Ecdysozoans

A group of protostome animals that includes 2 primary phyla:

1. Nematodes

2. Arthropods

These are covered by a cuticle or exoskeleton which is shed during growth

These are all coelomate and most are bilaterally symmetrical