psych test 1

learning

relatively permanent change in knowledge result of experience

conditioning

ability to connect stimuli (environmental changes) w responses

what is classical conditioning

neutral stimulus pairs with involuntary response

Learning occurs when neutral stimulus (like a sound) associate with a stimulus (like food) naturally produces involuntary response (dog salivating)

a person learns to associate a neutral stimulus (CS) with a stimulus (US) that naturally produces a response (UR). previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit the same response (CR).

parts of classical conditioning

unconditioned stimulus US

conditioned stimulus CS

unconditioned response UR 

conditioned response CR 

unconditioned stimulus US 

Something like eating food that triggers naturally occurring involuntary response

Unconditioned response UR

Naturally occurring involuntary response like salivation that follows unconditioned stimulus

Neutral stimulus  

A certain sound predicts US

Conditioned stimulus CS

Neutral stimulus after repeatedly presented prior to unconditioned stimulus - similar involuntary response as unconditioned stimulus 

Conditioned response CR 

Acquired involuntary response to formerly neutral stimulus

extinction

reduction in response occurring when conditioned stimulus presented repeatedly without unconditioned stimulus 

Acquisition

Neutral stimulus like tone and the US (eating food) repeatedly paired.

So neutral stimulus alone can cause involuntary response (saliva) now called CR

Spontaneous recovery 

After pause in time when CS presented alone, behavior could occur again and again even after extinct 

Increase in involuntary response to CS follows pause after extinction

Generalization

Tendency to respond but to lesser extent to stimuli resembling original conditioned stimulus

Discrimination

Tendency to respond differently to stimuli that are similar but not identical 

Second order conditioning

When new neutral stimulus comes to predict established conditioned stimulus, so involuntary response 

Black square, sound, then food. Black square w food 

scapegoat

one thing blamed for problems to reduce blame on another person

how learning shaped thru use of reinforcement schedules and secondary reinforcers

operant conditioning

learning happens based on consequences of voluntary behavior, can be new actions

If joke told and ppl like it, tell again

If people look confused by an explanation, he won't tell again

thorndikes law of effect

responses create typically pleasant outcome in situation more likely to occur again

responses negative, less likely to happen again

If joke told and ppl like it, tell again

If people look confused by an explanation, he won't tell again

Skinner

specially designed environments - aka operant chambers or skinner boxes

enclosure w bar or key animal touch to release food or water

shaping

process of guiding animals’ behavior to desired outcome

reinforcement

any event strengthens or encourages behavior

punishment

Event weakens or decreases behavior 

positive reinforcement

Behavior strengthened after adding something pleasant

Negative reinforcement 

Behavior strengthened after reduction or removal of something unpleasant - removal of chore

positive punishment

Behavior weakened after adding something unpleasant

Negative punishment 

Behavior weakened after removing something pleasant 

Schedules of reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement schedule 

Desired response reinforced when occurs

Not that typical in daily life

partial intermittent reinforcement schedule

responses sometimes reinforced, sometimes not

slower learning, greater extinction resistance

determined by whether the reinforcement is presented on the basis of the time that elapses between reinforcement (interval) or on the basis of the number of responses that the organism engages in (ratio), and by whether the reinforcement occurs on a regular (fixed) or unpredictable (variable) schedule.

Fixed interval

Reinforcement occurs for first response made after specific amt time passed 

For example, on a one-minute fixed-interval schedule the animal in a Skinner box receives a treat for pressing the bar after a minute has passed. Once the bar has been pressed, the one-minute timer resets. No bar presses will produce a treat until the one minute is up. The first bar press after that one minute results in a treat. As illustrated in Figure 7.5, once animals learn the fixed-interval schedule, they tend to slow down their responding immediately after the reinforcement but then increase the behavior again as the time gets closer to expiring

Rat get treat after exactly 30 seconds 

Variable interval schedule 

Behavior reinforced for first response after random amount of time passed

Rat waits 10 secs, 40 seconds then treats

Fixed ratio schedule

Behavior reifroced after specific number of responses 

Rat press bar 10 times, then behavior reinfroced

Variable ratio 

Provides reinforcers after specific but average number of responses

Press bar 10, 6, 2, 12 times

Primary reinforcers 

Stimuli naturally enjoyed by organism - food 

Secondary reinforcers or conditioned reinforcer  

Neutral event associated primary reinforcer, like money 

Six step process

1 Identify voluntary behavior want to change, not the outcome

2 monitor current behavior 

3 Create baseline for behavior - 3 set manageable goal based on baseline 

4 confident something we choose will work as reinforcement - fave food, movie as reward

5 when we reach goal give urself chosen reinforcement or reward

6 reflect on goal and reinforcement, make it more attainable 

commons dilemmas hardin or social dilemma

individual desire vs benefit of group

Situation where behavior creates the most positive outcomes for the individual may lead to long term negative consequences for group

Prisoners dilemma game

Social dilemma where goals of individual compete with goals of someone else or a group

Cooperative choice not confess

Competitive choice to confess

Insight

sudden understanding of problem that makes solution apparent

Latent learning 

learning not reinforced

not doing something until motivation to do it

Observational learning

Learning by observing others and consequences of behaviors

Mirror neurons fire when observe others

Learning theories applied to change ppls behaviors 

schemas

knowledge structure helping brain organize info

Psych domains

Learning

Memory cognition

Sensation and perception

Developmental

Biological psych

Personality

Social psych 

Psychological disorders

Therapy and treatment 

Biologically primary knowledge 

things we naturally good at 

Biologically secondary knowledge 

not as natural

system 1

fast unconscious, everyday

system 2

slow conscious

shallow processing

processed by sound or look

short term retention

deep processing

processed semantically

long term retention

5 major conditioning processes and preparedness

Acquisition - prior 

Preparedness

Extinction

Spontaneous recovery 

Generalization

Discrimination

serial position effect

• flashcards remember words beginning and end 

  • primary effect first word

  • Recency effect last word 

implicit memory

explicit memory

procedural memory

representative bias

availability bias

Availability bias (or the availability heuristic) is a cognitive bias where people overestimate the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind.

episodic memory

most distinct part of insight learning

appears suddenly

in an ad with classical conditioning, the product is

conditioned stimulus

second order conditioning

existing CS can act as a US in pairing with new CS

Bandura famous for

observational learning

memory

nervous system’s ability to retain info 4 later use

IPM information processing model 

Theoretical framework used by cognitive psychologists to explain and describe mental processes 

Encoding 

Storage 

Retrieval

iconic memory

memory of visual stimuli 

Length less than few tenths of a second

Echoic

This is momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli 

3-4 seconds

Short term memory

Info we are aware of thinking about at any given moment 

Length - 20-30 seconds 

Limited capacity 7+/-2 bits of information

Long term 

Relatively permanent and limitless storage of memory system

3 stages model of memory

external stimuli, short term, long term

Misinformation Effect

The misinformation effect occurs when a person's memory of an event becomes distorted by incorrect information provided after the event. A classic example is phrasing a question to an eyewitness about a car accident using the word "smashed" instead of "hit," causing them to falsely recall higher speeds or broken glass.

Chunking

Organizing info into similar manageable units

working memory

info for few seconds

order of processing visual info

photoreceptors - ganglion cells - optic nerve

bottom-up perception

get info without previous knowledge

data driven

specific to general, slower

trichromatic theory

opponent process theory

sensory adaptation

search and rescue dog smells things 50% of time

cones

rods

explicit memory

episodic

semantic

implicit memory

emotions in memory

procedural memory

semantic memory

Facts and general knowledge about world

Episodic memory

memories for personal events specific time and space 

Childhood memories 

flashbulb memory

super detailed memory

Emotions in memory

events with emotions remembered more

Procedural memory

motor skill and habits bike riding

Retrieval cues

Memories held in storage by web of associations

Clue that prompts retrieval  

Symbols lead to firetruck

Prototype

Best example that comes to mind

denmark, kangaroo, orange

Heuristic

Mental shortcut for problem solving 

Anchoring

cognitive bias, rely heavily on first info

hindsighth bias

create plausible explanation for smth occured

confirmation bias

When we ignore info goes against our beliefs

And search for evidence supporting our beliefs

Belief perseverance

Clinging on to ur beliefs after contrary evidence has been shown

mental set

Tendency to approach a problem with mindset  that worked for us previously

Representativeness heuristic

Quick judgment based on mental prototype 

Framing effect

Ppl choose this more - same thing - 90% of ppl survive procedure10% ppl die with procedure 

stimulus generalization

similar to original stimulus, not same

prosopagnosia

face blindness

spacing effect

studying over longer periods of time

Context dependent memory

external situation matches situation where remembered

State dependent memory

retrieval of memories when person in same state as during encoding