Congress and the Presidency Test Review // AP Government

Public’s View of Congress

Generally negative, low approval ratings of the institution, however, people often like their own Representatives.

Anti Federalists

Anti-Federalists feared tyranny in government, demanding a Bill of Rights to secure individual liberties. Often the commonfolk, farmers, uneducated, and the impoverished,

Federalists

Federalists supported the Constitution and a strong central government. Likely to be the elites, professionals, educated, and wealthy.

Common Sense

Wirtten by Thomas Paine arguing for the Constitution’s ratification. Written in common tongue so the commonfolk could understand it.

General characteristics of members of Congress?

Congressional members are generally older, wealthier, educated, white protestant males compared to the general public.

Qualifications to be a member of the House and the Senate

In the House, you must be at least 25 years, a US citizen for 7 years minimum, and a resident of the state. Similarly, the Senate requires members to be at least 30 years, a US citizen for 9 years minimum, and a resident of the state.

Qualifications to be the President

Must be at least 35 years old, a natural-born US citizen, and must be a 14-year resident in the United States.

Federalist 51

Written by James Madison, Federalist 51 deals with the subject of checks and balances between the government branches. Ensured the anti-federalists that no government branch could become too powerful and therefore tyrannical.

Federalist 10

Also written by Madison, Federalist 10 determined that factions are caused by the unequal distribution of wealth and cannot be eliminated; they can, however, be controlled. Madison feared the majority, and stated that the majority rules, but the rights of the minority must be upheld.

Thomas Jefferson

Influenced by Enlightenment ideas, he drafted the Declaration of Independence, emphasizing natural rights and self-governance.

Consequences of the French and Indian War

Doubled British national debt, leading to the taxation on the American colonies, which sparked the revolution.

Most underrepresented group in Congress?

Women are the most underrepresented group in Congress relative to their share of the population.

Substantive Representation

Represents the interests of groups, even if not a member of that group.

Enlightened Understanding

The 17th-19th century shift that prioritizes reason, individual rights, and consent of the governed over an absolute monarchy. Social contract, separation of powers, and informed citizen deliberation.

How many articles to the US Constitution

7 Articles

Descriptive Representation

Mirrors the personal/demographic characteristics of constituents.

Case Work

Action taken by members of Congress to assist constitutents with federal agencies or problems.

Advantages that incumbents have over challengers seeking reelection?

Incumbents usually win due to name recognition, case work, and pork barreling.

What is pork barreling and how does it help members of Congress?

The appropriation of government spending for localized projects, often to benefit a member’s district to secure votes and please constitutents.

How must states draw congressional lines?

States must draw lines so districts are nearly equal in population (one person, one vote)

Virginia Plan

Drafted by Virginia’s delegates, and favored the larger states with bigger populations, suggesting that legislation per state be determined by populaton.

New Jersey Plan

Drafted by New Jersey’s delegates, favored the smaller states that did not have an abundance of people, suggesting that legislation, regardless of size or state, be equal to the other states.

The Great Compromise

Also known as the Connecticut Plan drafted by its delegates, created the bi-cameral Congress in our government today. The House of Representatives would be determined by population, and the Senate kept states equal, guaranteeing 2 votes per state.

John Locke

Philosopher who inspired the Declaration of Independence with ideas on natural rights: life, liberty, and pursuit of property.

What powers are given to the Senate?

The exclusive power to provide “advice and consent” by ratifying treaties, confirming Cabinet secretaries, federal judges, and ambassadors, as well as conducting impeachment trials.

What is the only office in Congress mandated by the Constitution?

The Speaker of the House of Representatives.

Describe the power in the House and the Senate

The HoR is tasked with initiating revenue legislation and impeachment. The Senate focuses entirely ratification and high-level appointments. Both must pass the SAME bill for it to become law.

Role of President of the Senate is filled by?

Filled by the Vice President of the United States, who holds the power to break tie votes.

The highest ranking member of the party that does not have control of the House of Representatives is?

The Minority Leader of the House

Roles of the whips in Congress?

Whips pressure party members to vote with their party.

Standing Committees

Permanent committees focusing on specific, large-scale issues, like Agriculture, etc.

Electoral College

A constitutionally mandated system where electors, equal to the number of representatives and senators per state, vote for President.

Conference Committees

Reconcile different versions of the same bill.

Describe the Federalist Papers

A series of 85 essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison (Architect of the Constitution), and John Jay supporting the Constitution’s ratification, addressing topics like the structure of government, separation of powers, and the need for a strong republic.

22nd Amendment

Limits the President to a max of two terms.

25th Amendment

Handles presidential disability and Vice President vacancies.

Joint Committees

Joint Committees include members from both the House and Senate.

Why do members of Congress form a caucus?

To advance specific policy goals, discuss mutual interests, or share information, particularly when Committee or party leadership does not serve their specific interests.

How are the chair of most committees in Congress chosen?

They are selected by the majority party in each house, traditionally based on seniority.

Where does the majority of work in Congress take place?

Within committees.

Political Participation

The voluntary actions taken by citizens to influence public policy and government actions. Includes conventional acts like voting, donating to campaigns, and contacting officials.

What does the Government Accountability Office focus on?

The GAO audits and monitors executive branch spending.

What do most members of a congressional staff focus on?

Dedicated to constitutent service (casework)—helping residents navigate federal agencies. Also policy research, drafting legislation, media relations, and scheduling.

Omnibus Bill and its key aspects

A massive, single document that packages very many smaller, unrelated bills—often encompassing all annual appropriations bills—into one, making it difficult for members to vote against it.

3/5ths Compromise

Determined that 3/5ths of the enslaved in a state’s population would count toward the population size for representation and taxation.

In the House of Representatives, when does a bill go to the Rules Committee?

After a bill is reported out of its committee of jurisdiction and before it reaches the full House floor for a debate.

What is a filibuster?

A tactic, primarily in the Senate, used by the minority party to delay or block a vote on a measure by extending the debate.

How can a filibuster be ended in the Senate?

A filibuster is ended by invoking cloture, which requires a 3/5ths vote (usually 60 senators) to limit debate.

What path do most bills take once they are entered into Congress?

Most bills die in committee. If a bill is not “tabled”, it moves to hearings, markups, a committee vote, the House Rules Committee (if in the House), floor/debate vote, the other chamber, a conference committee (if necessary), and finally to the President.

How have congressional parties changed in recent decades?

In recent decades, parties have become more ideologically polarized, with greater party unity and less overlap in voting patterns between the two parties.

Concept of legislators acting a trustees

Legislators use their best judgement

Concept of a legislator acting as an instructed delegate

Legislators mirror the will of their constitutents

When is lobbying most successful in Congress

Lobbying is most effective during the committee stage when the specific language of a bill is being written or amended.

Why do presidents struggle to get things done on their agenda?

Presidents face opposition from a polarized Congress, a decentralized legislative process, and competing demands from special interests and the public, leading to slow or stalled legislative action.

What is a mandate?

The perception that a President’s electoral victory signifies public support for their policy agenda, which they use to justify pushing their policies through Congress.

How can a president be removed from office?

The House of Representatives holds the power to impeach a president, and the Senate must hold a trial and vote to remove them, requiring a 2/3rds majority.

How does the President of the United States differ from the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom?

The US President is separately elected, heads the executive branch, limited by a strong separation of powers, and does not need to be a member of Congress. The UK Prime Minister is part of the Parliament, chosen by the majority party, and serves only as long as they hold the confidence of Parliament.

Executive Orders

A directive issued by the President to federal agencies that has the force of law, allowing them to manage government operations without congressional approval, though they are subject to judicial review.

Why did Congress enact the War Powers Act?

Congress passed this resolution over President Nixon’s veto to reassert its constitutional authority following the Vietnam War and secret bombings in Cambodia. Intended to prevent imperial presidencies from committing troops to long-term conflicts without legislative consent.

How can Congress check the President's war powers?

Congress can refuse to appropriate funding for military operations, the President must notify Congress within 48 hours of deploying forces into hostilities, Armed forces cannot remain in hostilities for more than 60 days without a formal declaration of war or specific authorization from Congress.

Council of Economic Advisors

The CEA is a group of economists who advise the President on domestic and international economic policy.

The Office of Management and Budget

The OMB is responsible for preparing the President’s federal budget proposal and overseeing the implementation of government programs.

Executive Priviledge

A controversial, non-constitutional right claimed by presidents to keep executive branch communications confidential from the legislative and judicial branches to ensure candid advice from staff.

What are judicial powers of the president?

To nominate judges and Supreme Court justices, and grant clemency: issue pardons, reprieves, and commutations for federal offenses.

Why has the power and the responsibility of the president increased?

Power has grown not through constitutional changes, but due to national growth, crisis management, media presences, and legislative delegation.

Before the mid 1970’s, Vice Presidents were typically…

Vice Presidents were typically symbolic figures with little real power or policy influence, often chosen primarily due to balancing a presidential ticket geographically or ideologically.

How has the President’s Cabinet changed over time?

The heads of the 15 executive departments who advise the President and implement his agenda. Over time, it has grown in size and diversity, through modern presidents often rely more on their immediate White House staff for daily policy decisions than on the full Cabinet.

What is the role of the National Security Council?

Coordinates foriegn policy, defense, and intelligence activities.

Chief of Staff

Acting as the President's chief advisor and "gatekeeper" to the Oval Office. This role is responsible for overseeing White House staff, managing the president’s schedule, and supervising policy development.

White House Staff: who makes up this staff?

A team of personal aides and advisors (including the Counsel, Press Secretary, and Senior Advisors) who work in the West Wing. They are political appointees who do not require Senate confirmation.

Describe the President’s Cabinet.

An advisory body established in Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution, consisting of the Vice President and the heads of 15 executive departments (e.g., State, Defense, Treasury). Cabinet secretaries are nominated by the president and must be confirmed by the Senate.

Executive Office of the President

Created in 1939 by FDR, the EOP consists of the immediate support staff and agencies that aid the president in managing the federal bureaucracy. It is technically overseen by the Chief of Staff and includes the National Security Council (NSC), the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), and the Council of Economic Advisers.

How does high public approval benefit the president?

High approval allows the president to increase leverage over Congress, making it easier to pass legislation and advance their policy agenda.

Electoral Mandates

The perception that a winning candidate has received a clear endorsement from the voters to implement their campaign promises.

Describe recent First Ladies

Act in a largely ceremonial role, but often advocate for specific policy initiatives and manage the White House residence staff. Laura Bush with education, Eleanor Roosevelt with benefit programs, Michelle Obama with school lunch programs, and Hillary Clinton with healthcare.

How do modern day Presidents differ from the intentions of the founding fathers?

Modern presidents have significantly more power than originally envisioned. The Founders intended a limited role designed to avoid tyranny, with Congress as the primary branch. Modern presidents, however, use expansive executive orders, the large EOP, and the massive federal bureaucracy to drive policy.

Who takes the lead in crafting foreign policy?

While Congress has powers to declare war and approve treaties, the president takes the lead in crafting foreign policy, often through the NSC and the Department of State.

How are vacancies in the Vice Presidency filled?

Under the 25th Amendment, when a vacancy occurs in the vice presidency, the president nominates a successor, who must be confirmed by a majority vote in both the House and the Senate.

What powers belong exclusively to the President of the United States?

Power to veto, pardons and reprieves, appointment of judges, and receiving ambassadors.

Commander in Chief

Article II grants the president supreme command of the armed forces.

War Powers Act

A federal law intended to check the president's power to commit the US to an armed conflict without the consent of Congress. It requires the president to notify Congress within 48 hours of deploying troops and limits their stay to 60 days without authorization.

Executive Agreement

An agreement between the president and a foreign leader that does not require Senate ratification, unlike a formal treaty. These are used to govern daily international relations.