BIO final

Genetics

branch of biology that focuses on the inheritance of traits

hydrogen bonds

Water can dissolve more substances than any other liquid

Chromosome

A structure found inside the nucleus of a cell

Solvent

substance that a solute is dissolved in to form a solution; typically a liquid.

Chemoreceptors

receptors that respond to different chemical stimuli in the environment.

Protein Production

the biotechnological process of generating a specific protein

Biological fitness

ability of an individual to produce offspring, relative to other individuals of the same species in the same environment.

Cellular Respiration

Three- part process that converts a single glucose molecule into energy /ATP.

senses

Taste, smell, solute concentration (osmoreceptors in our blood detect glucose, oxygen, and carbon dioxide levels)

Population

Individuals of the same species that live in the same area at the same time and have the potential to interbreed Four mechanisms of evolutionary change within a(n) ecosystem

Adaptations for Thermoregulation

Energy Conservation

Photoreceptors

receptors that respond to different wavelengths of light.

Domain

Bacteria  Prokaryotic cells  No membrane bound nucleus or organelles  Circular DNA  Have a plasma membrane and a cell wall  Single- celled organisms.

Polyploidy

\: a condition in which one or more sets of chromosomes have been added to the genome of a diploid organism, creating a triploid (often sterile) or tetraploid (often viable /fertile) organism; result of total nondisjunction.

Interneurons

nerve cells that connect other neurons and relay information between them; only found in CNS (mainly in the spinal cord)

Isotopes

defined by number of neutrons.

Homozygous

having the same two alleles of a certain gene.

Electrons

located some distance from atomic nucleus and has a negative electrical charge.

Evidence for Evolution Embryology

study of development from Fish fertilization to fetus stage Salamander  Similar structures during embryonic development among vertebrate groups Tortoise due to common ancestry  Pharyngeal gill slits Bird  Post anal tail Pharyngeal pouches Human Post- anal tail.

Polyploidy

when an organism contains more than one set of paired chromosomes; a result of nondisjunction; can lead to speciation.

Earth

and living organisms have not changed since their creation.

Protons

component of the atoms nucleus with a positive electrical charge.

Motor neurons

nerve cells that transmit signals from the CNS to muscles and glands involved in a response to a stimulus; elicit an action.

Forests

(conservation and reforestation)  National parks and preserves  CA has nine national parks (most of any state in US)  Reforestation of degraded forests  Planting more trees can slow down global warming AND create more habitat for a variety of species (win- win)

Atherosclerosis

hardening of arteries by accumulation of plaque (low density lipoproteins- bad cholesterol); can lead to heart attack or stroke.

Gene Flow

the movement of alleles from one population to another via migration.

Mutation

a permanent change in an organisms DNA  Random  Organisms can not will a change.

Habitat loss

transformation of a natural area into a human occupied area of little or no use to wild species.

X- linked disorders

X- linked disorders: genetic disorders caused by genes found on the x chromosome; can result from dominant or recessive alleles.

Each hemoglobin can. . .

transport four oxygen molecules bound to seats of iron molecules.

Sickle cell anemia

25 % chance that offspring will get the disorder if both parents are carriers.

Nucleoid region

location of cells DNA (not enclosed in a nucleus)

if multiple niches are available in an area

a population does not need to be separated for reproductive isolation to occur.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

portion of nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord, which includes the sensory organs (skin, eyes, ears, mouth, etc)

Negative mutations

are eliminated from populations over generations through purifying selection.

Resource partitioning

The dividing up of scarce resources among species with similar requirements.

Ecological niche

an organisms place or role within a community.

Evolution Homologous structures

structures that are physically similar (but functionally different) among closely- related groups of organisms due to a common ancestor.

Genetic drift

a random shift in the allele frequencies of a population due to death and /or reproduction.

“Survival of the fittest" survival to reproductive age Adaptation:

heritable trait that increases the reproductive success of an individual relative to individuals lacking that trait in the same environment.

Non-living objects are

not self-sustaining Inanimate

Steps of the scientific method

1. Question
2. observation
3. hypothesis
4. experimentation
5. results
6. conclusion

Protons

component of the atoms nucleus with a positive electrical charge

Neutrons

component of the atoms nucleus with no electrical charge

Electrons

located some distance from atomic nucleus and has a negative electrical charge

Types of Chemical Bonding Hydrogen bonding

a special type of covalent bond between positively charged hydrogen atoms and negatively charged atoms in separate molecules

Water

can dissolve more substances than any other liquid

Solvent

substance that a solute is dissolved in to form a solution; typically a liquid

Properties of Water Cohesion

the tendency for like molecules to cling together due to attractive forces (like hydrogen bonds)

Properties of Water Surface tension

water molecules are not attracted to air and pack more tightly at interface between air and water

Properties of Water Specific heat

amount of energy required to raise temp 1˚C  Water has a high specific heat compared to other molecules  Water acts as buffer to temperature changes

Vaporization

transformation from liquid to gas  Fastest moving water molecules transform to a gaseous state

Nucleotides

Organic molecules that serve as the building blocks (monomers) of nucleic acids, and are made up of a phosphate group, a sugar, and a nitrogenous base  DNA and RNA  Instructions for making proteins  ATP  Energy transfer

Proteins

a long, folded polypeptide

Domain (Prokaryotic cells)

Bacteria  No membrane bound nucleus or organelles  Circular DNA  Have a plasma membrane and a cell wall  Single-celled organisms

Nucleoid region

location of cells DNA (not enclosed in a nucleus)

Cell wall

rigid structure outside of Bacterial cell membrane

bacterium Bacillus coagulans bacterium Flagella

locomotion organelles in some bacteria

Domain (Eukaryotic cells)

Larger in size  Have nucleus and other membrane bound organelles  Linear DNA  All have plasma membranes, but only plant cells have cell walls  Unicellular and multicellular organisms

Movement of Molecules Diffusion

passive movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration; requires no energy input

Active transport

movement of ions or molecules across the plasma membrane against the concentration gradient with the use of energy (ATP)

Communication proteins

Membrane proteins that bind with signaling molecules on exterior of cell and initiate a response in the cell interior

Anaerobic Pathway Fermentation

metabolic pathway that regenerates NAD+ from NADH and allows for glycolysis to continue making ATP in the absence of oxygen

Alcohol fermentation

Yeast in anaerobic environment

Lactic acid fermentation

 Occurs in muscles when ATP use exceeds oxygen intak

Light Reactions

electrons from water are excited by solar energy and used to power the formation of ATP and NADPH (electron carrier)  Takes place in thylakoid membrane  Oxygen byproduct

Calvin Cycle

energy from light reactions (ATP and NADPH) used to convert CO2 to carbohydrates by stripping carbon from CO2  Takes place in stroma

Photosynthetic Pigments

molecules that absorb and reflect certain wavelengths of light

 Primary photosynthetic pigments

responsible for majority of photosynthesis in plants  Chlorophylls a and b absorb red-orange and blue- violet wavelengths

 Secondary photosynthetic pigments

fill in the gaps where/when primary pigments cannot photosynthesize  Carotenoids absorb blue-violet and green wavelengths

Evolutionary History of Plants Phylogenetic tree

evolutionary relationships among organisms  Groups organized by their Flowers shared characteristics  Common ancestor Seeds Vascular tissue

Evolution of Seeds Seed

a plant embryo and its food supply inside a protective layer (seed coat); much more successful than spores

 Vegetative propagation

a method of asexual reproduction in plants, where a root, stem, or leaf is used to grow a new plant

DNA Replication Helicase

enzyme that unwinds DNA separating it into two complementary strands

DNA Polymerase

enzyme that creates the complementary strand by adding new DNA nucleotides to the template strand

Bioengineering or genetic engineering

deliberate modification of the characteristics of an organism by manipulating its genetic material using special technology or controlled sexual reproduction; typically done as a means of meeting societal needs, like food and medicine

 Genetically modified organism (GMO)

an organism whose genome has incorporated one or more genes from another species

Model organisms

organisms that are easy to care of, study, and use for comparisons to many other similar species

Peas as model organisms

 Small and easy to take care of  Inexpensive to obtain  Easily observable traits  Only 2 variants per trait  Produce large numbers of offspring in short amount of time  Can be manipulated experimentally

Phenotype

observable features of an individual

 Recessive allele

allele whose phenotype is only expressed in homozygous recessive individuals; masked by dominant allele Ex, YY or yy

 Recessive disorder

genetic disorder that does not exist in the presence of a functioning dominant allele; only expressed in homozygous recessive individuals

Autosomal Recessive Disorder Carrier

a person who does not suffer rom the recessive genetic disorder but who carries an allele for it that can be passed along to their offspring  Ex

 Sickle-cell anemia

defective hemoglobin protein causes sickle cell shape

Exponential growth

when a populations size increases at a rate proportional to its current size (R) (J-shaped curve)

Logistic growth

the density-dependent decrease in growth rate as population size reaches the carrying capacity (K) (S shaped curve)

Space it requires, food it consumes, reproductive requirements, whether it is food for other organisms Competitive exclusion principle

two species cannot occupy the same ecological niche in the same area indefinitely, because one species will always outcompete the other

 G.F. Cause

It is not possible for two species to occupy the same ecological niche in the same

Resource partitioning

The dividing up of scarce resources among species with similar requirements

Fundamental niche

the full range of environmental conditions and resources an organism can possibly occupy and use in the absence of competitors

Realized niche

the part of the fundamental niche that an organism occupies as a result of competitors in the habitat

Ecosystem services

all the processes through which natural ecosystems benefit humans

Factors that Create the Ecosystems on Earth

 Solar energy is greatest at the equator, making it hot

Factors that Cause the Ecosystems on Earth Hadley cell

large scale atmospheric pattern where warm, wet air rises at the equator and cools at it moves poleward, with dry air descending at about 30° N and S latitude

Typical conversion method

the conversion or transformation of a natural area into a wholly human-occupied area of little or no use to wild species

deforestation

deforestation Human Impacts on Biodiversity Habitat loss

Preservation of Species Protection of species

Captive breeding Seed banks and frozen and their habitats programs zoos, DNA storage

 Endemic

species found only in a distinct geographic area

Functions of the Circulatory/cardiovascular system

organ system that circulates blood through a network of vessels, transporting nutrients, gases, and hormones to cells throughout the body

 Active Transport

transports oxygen, nutrients, waste products, immune system cells, and hormones throughout the body