Chapter 6: Cultural Differences in Worldviews and Communication

Worldview

Psychological perception of the world that determines how we think, behave, and feel

Etic Perspective for Looking at Cultures

An attempt to build theories of human behavior by examining commonalities across many cultures.

Emic Perspective for Looking at Cultures

An attempt to derive meaningful concepts within one culture

Imposed Etics

The imposition of one culture’s worldview on another culture, assuming that one’s own worldviews are universal

Delay of Gratification (Marshmellow Test)

Mischel, 1958 found that early behavioral patterns may indicate later ones in life, by testing if children could resist the temptation of a marshmellow as the adult left the room

When Research Imposes Cultural Assumptions

• White children at the Stanford Day Care Center chose to wait for more desirable reward.

• Black/African American children from the inner city chose to take the less desirable reward immediately.

• Conclusion: Black/African American children didn’t know how to delay gratification

Individualism

Motivated by their own preferences, needs, and rights

Collectivism

Motivated by group’s or collective’s preferences, needs, and rights

Idiocentrism

Individualistic tendencies that reside within an individual

• Individualism refers to the society, whereas idiocentrism refers to an individual

Allocentrism

Collectivistic tendencies that reside within an individual

• Collectivism refers to the society, whereas allocentrism refers to an individual

Countercultural Individuals

Idiocentric individuals residing in a collectivistic culture, or allocentric individuals residing in an individualistic culture

Horizontal Individualism

1. Ide rather depend on myself than others

2. I rely on myself most of the time; i rarely rely on others

3. I often do “my own thing”

4. My personal identity, independent of others, is very important to me

Vertical Individualism

1. It is important that I do my job better than others

2. Winning is everything

3. Competition is the law of nature

4. When another person does better than I do, I get tense and aroused

Horizontal Collectivism

1. If a coworker gets a prize, I would feel proud

2. The well being of my coworkers is important to me

3. To me, pleasure is spending time with others

4. I feel good when I cooperate with others

Vertical Collectivism

1. Parents and children must stay together as much as possible

2. It is my duty to take care of my family, even when I have to sacrifice what I want

3. Family members should stick together, no matter what sacrifices are required

4. It is important to me that I respect the decisions made by my groups

Face Giving/Giving Face

• Extolling the virtues of another person in public, it would be considered boastful and individualistic if the individual did this himself/herself

• Bragging is considered even more inappropriate in Asian Cultures

• Giving face promotes positive relationship between people

Clark and Clark

The “doll tests”, shows that the early emergence of differences in worldview among people of color caused children to internalize racism, resulting in low self-esteem and a preference for white dolls over black ones

What Causes the Difference in Worldview of Race

Prejudice and Discrimination

• Direct Experience

• Indirect Experience (ex: observation)

What Causes the Difference in Worldview of Women

Sexism

• Direct experience

• Indirect Experience

Gender norms/socialization

Worldview of LGBTQ+

Worldview contains an element of fear, danger, rejection, and discrimination

Why?

• Others perception of LGBTQ+ individuals central identity

• Prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination

Worldview Based on Social Class

Differences in worldview between individuals from high SES and those from low SES

Why?

• Education and financial freedom allow individuals to focus on the self

Cooperative Principle

Psycholinguistic term that assumes that we strive to communicate with one another sincerely and effectively when we engage in conversation

Cooperative Principle: Maxim of Quality

A communicative presumption that suggests that we tell each other the truth when we engage in a conversation

Cooperative Principle: Maxim of Quantity

A communicative presumption that suggests that we contribute an appropriate amount of talk when we engage in conversation

Cooperative Principle: Maxim of Quantity

A communicative presumption that suggests that we contribute an appropriate amount of talk when we engage in conversation

Cooperative Principle: Maxim of Relevance

A communicative presumption that suggests that our discussion is relevant to the communication

Cooperative Principle: Maxim of Manner

A communicative presumption that suggests that we are clear in our language and that we pay attention to normal standards of conversation

• Ex: Not shouting at someone who is right in front of us

Relations with conversational partner

A communicative presumption that suggests that we use our previous relationship with our conversational partner so that we do not have to repeat shared experiences

• Similar general maxims guide behaviors across cultures

Rule Violations to Relations with Conversational Partner

A communicative presumption that suggests that we signal
our conversational partners when we are about to engage in
a violation of one of the other maxims

Proxemics (definition)

Personal space in conversations

Halls Classification of Proxemics (1966)

1. Intimate = 0-18 inches

2. Personal - Casual = 1.5 ft - 4 ft

3. Social-Consultative (4 ft to 10 ft)

4. Public (10 ft or more)

Cultural Differences in Proxemics

1. Men and women approach personal space differently (ex: women often comfortable standing near other women

2. Americans generally prefer 18 inches of personal space

3. Many Europeans and Latin Americans may stand closer

4. Impacts social norms and behaviors as well as urban and city planning

5. Proxemic behavior is mostly learned through observation

Remland, Jones, and Brinkman (1991)

Distance

• Dutch pairs had the most distance

• French pairs had the less distance

• English pairs has the least distance

Body orientation

• French pairs more directly across from each other than other participants

Kinesics

Bodily movements in conversations, including hand gestures, facial expressions, and eye contact

Cultural Difference in Kinesics

1. Arab = longer and more direct gaze than US

2. East Asian = less eye contact during conflict, and uses smiling as a way of discharging uncomfortable feelings

3. Within US

   1. Black/African Americans gaze less directly than White/European Americans

   2. Native Americans/American Indians had less eye contact, prefer side by side orientation

Paralanguage

Nonverbal vocal cues in conversation, such as loudness of voice, silences, and rates of speech

Cultural Differences in the Meaning/Interpretation of Silence

1. Russian and Spanish cultures viewed silence as agreement

2. Asian cultures viewed silence as respect for elders

3. Native Americans/American Indians viewed silence as a way of gathering ones thoughts

Direct Communication

Blunt communication that is literal and to the point

Indirect Communication

Communication that relies upon context and the receiver’s ability to draw inferences

Factors Affecting Interracial Communications

1. Cultural norms and communication styles

2. Bias and Stereotypes

3. Power dynamics and Privilege

4. Language and Code Switching

5. Cultural Understanding, Sensitivity, and Perspective, Taking

Code Switching

Practice of alternating between two or more languages

• Ex: Gracias for the lovely gift

In the context of Black American Speech, adjusting ones style of speech, appearance, behavior, and expression

Communication Patterns of Older Adults in Health Care

Older adults prefer to use personal networks (ex: family, friends) to receive health-related information rather than via the internet or directly from their health-care providers

Communication Patterns of Grandparents with Grandchildren

Older adults major motivation for grandparent-grandchild interaction is to transmit knowledge and wisdom

Gender Differences in Communication (Wood (1994,1999)

1. Women use more indirect form of communication

2. Disclose more about themselves

3. Express understanding and empathy by matching their experiences with others

Additive Bilingualism

The acquisition of a second language that does not replace the native language

Subtractive Bilingualism/Language Attrition

The acquisition of a second language that replace the native language

Native Bilingualism

Exposure to two languages from birth or a very young age, resulting in proficiency in both languages

Cognitive Consequences of Bilingualism

1. Early studies indicated bilingual children showed lower academic performance than monolingual children

   1. When controlling for SES and educational opportunities, bilingual children were shown to outperform monolingual children

2. Bilingual individuals performed better on nonverbal tasks, such as Stroop tasks

3. Bilinguals more likely to experience delay in cognitive dissonance

4. Learning in one language and testing in the second language promotes deeper understanding of the materials

5. Bilingualism changes brain structures (ex: more gray matters in the executive control region)

Social Consequences of Bilingualism

1. Impact on identity development

2. Social Interaction