AP Psych Unit 4 Flashcards

Attribution theory

theory that explains how people determine the causes of behavior, attributing actions to either internal, personal traits (dispositional) or external, environmental factors (situational).

Dispositional attribution

the tendency to explain a person's behavior by pointing to their internal qualities, such as personality, character, traits, abilities, or emotions, rather than external circumstances

Situational attribution

the process of assigning the cause of a person's behavior to external factors—such as environment, luck, social pressure, or circumstances—rather than their internal traits or personality

Explanatory Style

a cognitive personality variable mapping how people habitually explain the causes of positive or negative events to themselves

Optimistic Explanatory Style

a cognitive tendency to attribute negative events to external, temporary, and specific factors, rather than internal, permanent, or pervasive ones

Pessimistic Explanatory Style

a cognitive tendency to explain negative events by attributing them to internal, stable, and global factors, while viewing positive events as external and temporary

Actor-observer bias

the tendency to attribute one’s own actions to external, situational causes (e.g., "I was late because of traffic") while attributing others' behaviors to internal, dispositional factors (e.g., "They were late because they are lazy")

The Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)

the tendency to overestimate personality-based (dispositional) factors and underestimate situational (external) factors when explaining others' behavior. For example, assuming someone is late because they are lazy, rather than due to traffic. It highlights a bias toward internal, not external, causes

The self-serving bias

the cognitive tendency to attribute personal successes to internal, dispositional factors (ability or effort) while blaming failures on external, situational factors (luck or task difficulty)

Internal Locus of Control

the belief that one controls their own life outcomes, successes, and failures through personal actions, effort, and decisions. Coined by Julian Rotter, this mindset implies that individuals are responsible for their destiny rather than being controlled by external forces.

External Locus of Control

the belief that life outcomes—successes or failures—are determined by outside forces rather than one's own actions. Individuals with this mindset attribute events to luck, fate, powerful others, or circumstantial factors, often feeling less personally responsible or helpless to change their circumstances.

Mere Exposure Effect

the finding that individuals show an increased preference (or liking) for a stimulus as a consequence of repeated exposure to that stimulus

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

a belief, expectation, or prediction—whether initially true or false—that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true due to the positive feedback loop between belief and behavior. Essentially, people's expectations of a person or event cause them to behave in a way that makes those expectations come true.

Social Comparison

the psychological process, often subconscious, of evaluating one’s own abilities, opinions, and social standing by comparing oneself to others.

Upward Social Comparison

a psychological concept where individuals compare themselves to others who are perceived as superior, better-off, or more skilled in a specific area. It often functions as a, motivated self-evaluation to seek inspiration or improvement, but can also lead to feelings of inferiority

Downward Social Comparison

a social psychology concept where individuals evaluate themselves against others perceived as worse off, less fortunate, or less skilled. This comparison often functions as a self-enhancement strategy, boosting self-esteem, increasing gratitude, or minimizing threats to one's own well-being

Relative Deprivation

the perception that one (or one's group) is worse off compared to others or a chosen standard, causing feelings of discontent, frustration, and a sense of injustice. Unlike absolute poverty, this subjective feeling often fuels social movements, protests, and, in some cases, criminal behavior.

Stereotype

a widely held, oversimplified, and generalized belief about a particular group of people, often based on characteristics like race, gender, or age

Prejudice

defined as an unjustifiable, typically negative, attitude toward a group and its members, often driven by stereotypes

Discrimination

the unjust, prejudicial, or unequal treatment of individuals or groups based on characteristics like race, age, sex, religion, or disability

Implicit attitudes

automatic, unconscious evaluations or feelings toward people, objects, or concepts that influence behavior without conscious awareness. Unlike explicit attitudes, these involuntary mental associations form through experience and often operate outside of conscious control

Just-World Phenomenon (or hypothesis)

a cognitive bias defined as the tendency for people to believe the world is fundamentally fair, orderly, and predictable, where individuals generally get what they deserve—good actions are rewarded, and bad actions are punished. This belief helps individuals feel safe and in control

In-Group Bias

the strong, automatic tendency for individuals to favor, trust, and hold more positive attitudes toward members of their own group (the in-group) compared to those in other groups (the out-group).

Out-group homogeneity bias

the cognitive tendency to perceive members of an outside group ("them") as highly similar, uniform, or "all the same," while viewing one's own group ("us") as diverse and unique.

Ethnocentrism

the practice of judging another culture solely by the values, standards, and beliefs of one's own culture, which is often viewed as superior. This mindset causes people to view their own group as the "norm" and center of all things, leading to misinterpretation, prejudice, and negative stereotypes of others.

Belief Perseverance

the cognitive bias where individuals cling to their initial beliefs even after they have been discredited or contradicted by evidence

Confirmation bias

the cognitive tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses while disregarding or minimizing contradictory evidence.

Cognitive dissonance

the mental discomfort or tension experienced when an individual holds contradictory beliefs, attitudes, or values, or when behavior conflicts with beliefs

Cognitive load

the total amount of mental effort, resources, and activity imposed on working memory at any given moment.

Role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in that position ought to behave

Social norms

the understood, often unwritten rules and implicit expectations that guide accepted behavior within a specific group or culture

Social influence theory

idea that describes how an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are shaped by the real, imagined, or implied pressure of others

Normative social influence

a type of social influence where individuals conform to group norms, behaviors, or expectations to be liked, accepted, or avoid social rejection

Informational social influence

a type of conformity where individuals change their behavior or beliefs to match a group because they believe the group possesses more accurate information, especially in ambiguous or crisis situations

Persuasion

the process of actively attempting to change a person's or group's attitudes, beliefs, intentions, or behaviors through communication

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

a social psychology theory explaining how persuasive messages change attitudes through two routes based on motivation and ability

Central route persuasion

a method of attitude change in AP Psychology that focuses on factual, logical arguments, evidence, and deep, thoughtful processing of information

Peripheral route persuasion

a method of attitude change in AP Psychology that occurs when people are influenced by incidental, superficial cues—such as a speaker's attractiveness, celebrity endorsement, or emotional appeals—rather than the strength of the message's arguments

The halo effect

a cognitive bias where an overall positive impression of a person, brand, or product (often based on one trait like attractiveness) unconsciously influences and colors judgments about their other, unrelated traits

Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

a compliance strategy where agreeing to a small, initial request increases the likelihood of complying with a subsequent, larger request

Door-In-The-Face (DITF) technique

a persuasion strategy where a large, unreasonable request is made first—expected to be rejected—followed by a smaller, target request. It relies on the norm of reciprocity, making people feel obliged to comply with the second, smaller request

Conformity

the adjustment of one's attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors to coincide with a group standard or social norm

Obedience

is a form of social influence where an individual changes their behavior to comply with a direct command or order from a perceived authority figure

Individualism

a cultural value system that prioritizes personal independence, self-reliance, and individual goals over the needs of a group or collective.

Collectivism

a cultural value prioritizing group goals, harmony, and interdependence over personal aspirations, focusing on "we" rather than "me"

Multiculturalism

the recognition, appreciation, and promotion of diverse cultural, ethnic, and racial backgrounds within a society, advocating for equal respect, rights, and coexistence

Group polarization

the tendency for a group to make decisions or hold opinions that are more extreme than the initial, individual inclinations of its members. Through discussion and social interaction, shared viewpoints become intensified, leading to riskier or more radical stances

Groupthink

a social psychology phenomenon where the desire for group harmony and conformity overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. This leads to irrational, faulty, or poor decision-making because members suppress dissent, avoid conflict, and ignore ethical consequences

Diffusion of responsibility

a social psychological phenomenon where individuals feel less personal accountability to take action or help in a crisis when others are present. As group size increases, individuals assume someone else will intervene, leading to inaction

Social loafing

the tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working collectively on a task than when working alone, often driven by a decreased sense of personal responsibility

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and personal responsibility in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. It causes individuals to lose their sense of identity, leading to reduced inhibition, increased conformity to group norms, and often impulsive, antisocial, or aggressive behavior

Social facilitation

the tendency for people to perform simple or well-learned tasks better when in the presence of others

The false consensus effect

a cognitive bias in AP Psychology where individuals overestimate the extent to which their own opinions, beliefs, preferences, and behaviors are normal and shared by others

Superordinate goals

shared, high-level objectives that necessitate cooperation between two or more opposing parties, overriding individual differences and reducing intergroup conflict

A social trap

a situation where individuals or groups, acting in their own immediate self-interest, engage in behaviors that produce short-term rewards but ultimately lead to negative, harmful, or destructive long-term consequences for the entire group. It is a type of conflict where personal gain overrides collective well-being

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) psychology

the scientific study and application of psychological principles to the workplace, aimed at improving employee productivity, health, and well-being while optimizing organizational performance

Burnout

a state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion caused by long-term involvement in emotionally demanding or chronic high-stress situations

Altruism

the unselfish concern for the welfare of others, characterized by actions that benefit another person without expectation of personal gain or reward. It is a form of prosocial behavior driven by empathy rather than motivation for self-benefit (egoism

Prosocial behavior

voluntary actions intended to benefit others or society, such as helping, sharing, comforting, and cooperating

Social debt

the feeling of obligation to repay others for prosocial actions, reinforcing social reciprocity norms. It is an emotional state where receiving help creates a sense of guilt or duty to "pay it forward"

The social reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them. It is a fundamental, universal rule driving prosocial behavior, where positive actions are returned with similar positive actions, strengthening social bonds and trust

The social responsibility norm

the societal expectation that individuals should help those in need or dependent upon them (e.g., children, elderly, disabled) without expecting a reward

The bystander effect

a social psychology phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help a victim when others are present, with the likelihood of intervention decreasing as group size increases. Coined by Latané and Darley, it is primarily driven by diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance.

Situational variables

external, environmental, or contextual factors that influence an individual’s behavior, often overriding personality traits. Key factors include the presence of others (bystander effect), urgency of the situation, social norms, and physical surroundings.

Attentional variables

internal and external factors influencing how individuals focus, process, and prioritize information.

Personality

an individual’s unique, stable, and enduring pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. It encompasses consistent behaviors, motivations, and characteristics that distinguish one person from another over time and across different situations.

Psychodynamic Perspective

how unconscious drives, childhood experiences, and unresolved inner conflicts shape behavior and personality. Originating from Freud, this approach emphasizes hidden motivations, defense mechanisms

Ego defense mechanisms

unconscious, automatic psychological strategies used by the ego to reduce anxiety, manage overwhelming emotions, and protect against conflicting thoughts or id impulses. Proposed by Sigmund Freud and expanded by Anna Freud, these mechanisms distort reality to maintain mental stability and reduce stress.

Denial

a psychoanalytic ego defense mechanism where an individual unconsciously refuses to acknowledge or accept the reality of an anxiety-provoking fact, event, or feeling. It acts as a protective, often irrational, distortion of reality to avoid painful emotions

Displacement

a Freudian ego defense mechanism where an individual redirects negative emotions—such as anger, fear, or frustration—from the original, threatening target to a safer, less threatening substitute person or object. It is an unconscious process used to reduce anxiety by discharging impulses without facing direct consequences

Projection

a psychodynamic ego defense mechanism where individuals unconsciously attribute their own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or impulses onto someone else to reduce anxiety and protect the ego. It involves disowning internal, threatening feelings by seeing them in others

Rationalization

a Freudian ego defense mechanism where individuals unconsciously distort reality by creating logical, self-justifying explanations for unacceptable behaviors, thoughts, or feelings to avoid guilt and protect self-esteem. It is an unconscious strategy to reduce anxiety by substituting true, threatening motivations with acceptable, "rational" reasons

Reaction formation

an unconscious psychoanalytic defense mechanism where the ego protects itself from anxiety by acting in the exact opposite manner to one’s true, unacceptable impulses or feelings. It involves transforming forbidden desires into exaggerated, opposite behaviors to mask true emotions

Regression

an unconscious ego defense mechanism where an individual reverts to an earlier, more infantile stage of development when facing intense stress, anxiety, or conflict. It acts as a coping strategy by retreating to behaviors that were safer or more comfortable in the past

Repression

the foundational, unconscious ego defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, memories, and forbidden impulses from conscious awareness. It acts as a protective, involuntary mechanism to manage internal conflict, often causing individuals to have no memory of traumatic events

Sublimation

a psychoanalytic defense mechanism where the ego unconsciously channels socially unacceptable, aggressive, or sexual urges into socially acceptable, productive, or creative activities. Considered a mature defense, it allows individuals to satisfy drives without causing harm. Redirecting taboo desires (e.g., anger, lust) into constructive behavior (e.g., art, sports).

Projective Test

a personality assessment tool used in psychoanalysis that presents ambiguous, unstructured stimuli (like inkblots or vague pictures) to individuals, encouraging them to project their unconscious thoughts, emotions, and internal conflicts onto the images. Common examples include the Rorschach inkblot test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

Preconscious mind

consists of thoughts, memories, and information not currently in conscious awareness but that can be easily recalled or brought into consciousness at any moment. It acts as a bridge between the conscious and unconscious mind

Unconscious mind

a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories outside of conscious awareness, primarily emphasized by Sigmund Freud's psychodynamic theory. It stores repressed memories and desires that influence behavior, personality, and emotions without the person's awareness

Self-actualizing tendency

a fundamental concept in humanistic psychology, defining the innate, universal drive of every individual to grow, develop, and reach their full potential

Social Cognitive Theory

theory that defines personality development as an interaction between a person's traits (including thinking), their behavior, and their social context/environment.

Reciprocal determinism

a core concept of Albert Bandura's social-cognitive theory, states that personality and behavior are shaped by the continuous, bidirectional interaction between three factors: personal cognitive factors (thoughts, beliefs, traits), environmental influences (social, physical surroundings), and behavior itself

Self-concept

the mental representation and total collection of beliefs, attitudes, and opinions an individual holds about themselves, including their attributes, abilities, and identity. It is a cognitive, multidimensional construct that develops over time, influencing behavior, motivation, and perception of oneself

Self-efficacy

is an individual’s belief in their capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments. It represents confidence in one's ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish tasks, influencing motivation, effort, and persistence

Self-esteem

an individual's subjective, overall evaluation of their own personal worth and value. It encompasses emotional states like pride or shame and cognitive beliefs about one's abilities, strongly influencing behavior, motivation, and mental health

Trait theory

theory that defines personality through stable, enduring behavior patterns, dispositions, and conscious motives that remain relatively consistent across different situations

The Big 5 Theory (OCEAN)

a dominant, empirically supported trait theory in personality psychology identifying five broad, stable dimensions that describe human personality. The factors—Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism—are measured on a continuum, representing how an individual thinks, feels, and behaves across situations.

Agreeableness

an individual's tendency to be cooperative, compassionate, kind, and trusting in social interactions. It reflects a "we-centric" rather than "me-centric" orientation

Openness to experience

an individual's curiosity, creativity, and willingness to embrace new experiences, unconventional ideas, and intellectual challenges

Extraversion

sociability, assertiveness, high energy, and a tendency to seek stimulation from the external environment and social interaction

Conscientiousness

personality trait characterized by being organized, responsible, diligent, and goal-directed

Emotional Stability

a personality dimension characterized by consistency in moods, emotional calmness, and the ability to handle stress effectively without becoming overwhelmed.

Personality inventory

an objective, standardized self-report questionnaire used to assess an individual’s traits, behaviors, and feelings. Unlike subjective projective tests, these tools use structured, often true-false or agree-disagree items (like the MMPI) to quantify personality characteristics

Factor analysis

a statistical technique in AP Psychology used to identify clusters of related, directly observed variables (items on a test) to determine the underlying, unobserved latent constructs (factors) they measure

motivation

a need or desire that energizes, directs, and maintains behavior toward a specific goal. It acts as the driving force behind actions, stemming from biological, emotional, or social factors

Homeostasis

the body’s tendency to maintain a stable, balanced internal environment (equilibrium) despite changes in external conditions

Drive-reduction theory

theory that posits that organisms are motivated to act to reduce physiological tensions (drives) caused by unmet biological needs—such as hunger or thirst—to maintain a stable internal state known as homeostasis.

Arousal theory

theory that states that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of physiological alertness and excitement, balancing stimulation to avoid boredom or excessive stress

The optimal level of arousal

the ideal amount of stimulation, excitement, or alertness a person needs to function best and achieve peak performance

Yerkes-Dodson law

states that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal (stress) but only up to a point. Known as the "inverted U-shaped curve" or "Arousal Theory," it posits that moderate arousal is optimal for performance, while too little (boredom) or too much (anxiety) hinders success