AH climate change and health exam 2

evapotranspiration

• water coming out of plant matter

• forest and other vegetation sources

infiltration

• seepage of precipitation into groundwater

Aral sea

• russia

• 3rd largest lake in the world

• overtime the lake slowly grow smaller and smaller

• 23 meters dropped

• feedwater stopped growing in

• saltwater stayed

• highly salty

• human impact on water cycle

the water cycle

• describes where water is on earth and how it moves

• human water use land use and climate change all impact the water cycle

• by understanding these impacts we can work towards using water sustainably

distribution of water

• Ocean 96.5%

• fresh water 2.5%

  • in glaciers and ice caps 68.7%

  • ground water 30.1%

  • surface and other freshwater

    • ground ice and permafrost 69.0%

    • lakes/rivers and marshes 20.9%

trapped water in glaciers make uo about 2% of global water

global sea rise

• increasing a lot since 1880

• almost a full foot of sea level rise

sea level rises

• global sea levels have risen 8-9 inches since 1880

• about 4 inches since 1993 and is rising at 0.15 inches per year

primary drivers of sea level rising

• melting of mountains glaciers and ice sheets

  • antaritcal and Greenland ice sheets

• thermal expansion of 3ater

thermal expansion of seawater

• from 1970-2005 melting thermal expansion were contributing equally to sea leave rise

• melting is neatly twice the amount of sea level rise as compared to thermal expansion

• heating water makes it slightly less dense

• higher sea temp means higher sea level rises

• not as great as the rising amount of water

sea level rise cont.

• water added from glaciers make sea leaves rise

  • pouring water into a cup

• melting is sea ice also contributes to sea level rise

• Seawater is more dense than freshwater

  • volume of saltwater that iceberg displaces is less than if it was in freshwater

  • when iceberg melts it is greater volume that the saltwater it displaces

  • salt water is more dense

sea level rise

• sea levels rise in the future depends on the extent of global warming and could be upwards of several feet

• estimate for displaces populations are highly dependent on scenario and are believed to be between 4-132 million by 2100

land projected to be lost

• 2,800-490,00 km squared

• consistently show the higher absolute migration

• small island developing states are most affected

• 1.9 W of energy extra entering earth

many countries most impacted by sea level rise contributed the least to climate change

• a lot of island nations

• estimated to coat trillion of dollars in damages

surface water

• water that is on the surface of the earth

  • streams, rivers lakes, reservoirs and oceans

• surface water is at risk of being contaminated with both chemical and biological agents

surface water

• significant freshwater at higher altitudes

• arid region tends to be salty, thr0ugh evaporation, constrations inflowing salts

freshwater is contained less than 1,000 milligrams per liter of dissolved solids, most often salts

• freshwater can become salt water

groundwater

• water that exists underground in saturated zones beneath the land surface

Agulfer

• a geological formation that contains sufficient saturated permeable material to yield significant qualities of water to wells and spring

• unconsolidated materials like gravel, sand, and even silts make relatively goof aquifers as do rocks like sandstone

• water flows through these materials

• water wouldn't be trapped with just this

confining bed

• layer that does not allow transmission of water

• clay silt and rock

water table

the level below which the ground is saturated with water

ground water can be viewed as a non-renewable resource

recharge/infiltration

• the process of water soaking into the ground and moving through pores in the soil to reach the water table

groundwater is much less at risk to b contaminated than surface water, but still can be contaminated

cone of depression

excessive withdraws of groundwater lead to local decrease in the water table

cones of depression are slow to recover due to the slow rates at which ground water moves

can cause shallow wells to run dry

saltwater intrusion

• the contamination of freshwater aquifers or wells by seawater

• primarily causes by over pumping groundwater

• sea level rise and changes in recharge

• adult recommendation of sodium intake in 2.300 mg/day

in counties without sufficient drinking water salt is already present at high levels in drinking waters

• warmer climates consume the recommended salt just in their drinking water

higher sodium intake

• hypertension

• chronic kidney disease

climate effects on ground water

• 77% of watersheds would have saltwater intrusion

• this would make groundwater greeter than 3,00 mg/l and unsuitable for most agriculture crops

• higher drinking water salinity is associated with an elevated risk of blood pressure and hypertension especially among costal populations

primary uses of water

• agriculture

• domestic

• industrial

• globally 70% of all freshwaters is used for agriculture

  • 10% of global food production depends on over pumping of groundwater (25% for india)

average person in US uses

• about 100 gallons about 400 liters of water per day

• less than 1 gallon of water for drinking

• over 100,000 gallons per year

• 50-70 % used for outdoor purposes such as watering lawns and washing cars

water is a limited resource for humans

• longer recharges

• fossil water resource

water scarcity

• demand for water exceeds supply and where avaliable water resources are approaching or have exceeded sustainable limits

economic water scarcity

• poor governance, limited capacity infrastructure and limited investments are among the drivers of economic water scarcity

• this can occur in regions w adequate water resources

physical water scarcity

• water resources are overexploti4d for different uses and no longer meet the needs of the population

water strees

• an outcome of water scarcity

• referring to scarcity in terms of water quality and accessibility

areas of water stress

• north Africa

• US west coast

• arid climates

note higher levels of agriculture water stress in south Asia

groundwater table decline

• India

• suadia arbia

• west coast of US

large amount of irrigation in the western US

• a lot of agriculture produced there

despite increase in population there is a decrease in water usage

water withdraw decreases are primarily attributed to reduced demands in thermoelectric power

global water usage

• increase in water withdraw by 2040

• b 2050 the world will need to grow 60% more food to keep up with the population growth

• expected improvement in water use efficiency and increase in reuse will be important in slowing the growth in freshwater withdraws

• 68% of population expected to live in urban setting in 2050

• higher consociations of indv in urban setting increase water demands

monsoon

• large scale seasonal reversal of wind patterns caused by temp differences between land and oceans, brings distinct wet and dry seasons to geographic regions

• higher heat capacity of water cause

  • warmer winter temp over ocean

  • cooler summer temperatures over ocean

• sign increase of rainfall in spring and summer

monsoons occur in several geopathic regions globally and are vulnerable to climate change though there is no single expected monsoon response

• most regions with experience increases seasonal mean rainfall as global warming continues

• however

  • rainfall will fall in fewer more intense events

  • longer dry spells between rain fall

  • greater interannually variability

• increased uncertainty in monsoon onset remains a major challenge

  • agriculture Calander, water storage and disease seasonality becomes misaligned with historical expectations

disruptions to monsoon patterns

• increasing greenhouse gasses

• more warming of the ocean

  • changes the driving force inland

• aerosols

• land usage

  • soil is heated to lesser degree

monsoon

• beyond drinking water shifting monsoons have significant implications for agriculture

• rainfed crops, rice in northeast of India would be at particular risk for increasable unpredicted monsoon season

• overall, this results in a further increased reliance on groundwater

tropical cyclone

• rapidly rotating low pressure storm system that forms over warm tropical waters, characterized by strong winds, heavy rain and spiral arrangement of thunderstorms

• includes hurricanes typhoons, tropical storms and tropical depressions

• specific cyclone formation includes

  • warm seas surface temperature

  • moist atmosphere

  • preexisting near surface disturbance

• when tropical cyclones traverse warmers waters, they tend to strengthen, climate change will make this increasingly common

• includes hurricanes, typhoons, tropical depressions

• regions that experience tropical cyclones

the us hurricanes are defined by their maximum sustained wind speed, but this is not the complete story

• typically, higher category storms have lower pressure increasing storm surge height

• tropical cyclones are increasing in strength

• frequency of tropical cyclones is changing depending on region

Hazards of tropical cyclones associated with climate change

• tropical cyclones are increasing in strength

• higher peak wind speeds

• rainfall rates are increasing

• warmer air holds greater moisture, leading to greater precipitation

• higher rates of inland flooding

• storm surge

  • lower pressure and stronger winds produce larger storms surge

  • due to sea-level rise even if storm strength stays the same the impact of storm surge will be more sig

storm surge

• certain locations are particularly vulnerable

tropical cyclones

• cause of fatalities from tropical cyclones often mismatches expectations

• in the continental US, freshwater flood (36%) and storm surge 33% account for the majority of the 24 direct fatalities per TC

cause of fatalities from tropical cyclones mismatch expectations

• growing evidence supports there are sig public health threats associated with post storm recovery causing up to 11,000 excess deaths over 15 years post TC caused by

  • economic disruptions- loss of access to health insurance and reduced retirement savings

  • social network changes- migration for work might leave older dependences without sufficient support

  • fiscal adjustment by government in response to storm

  • changes in natural environment could impact health- exposure to pathogens or chemicals during flooding, mold in homes

  • heighten [physical and mental stress

flood risk

• floods are becoming increasingly common across all types

  • warmers air holds more moisture, leading to heavier rainfall events

  • land use changes reduce absorption capacity of natural areas

floods are becoming increasing common and increasingly costly

• flood occurrence frequency and total flood damage has increased in countries of all income statuses

  • increase is more sig for countries of lower income status

  • while high-income countries might have the greatest assest at potential risk due to flood, they also prosses the resoruces to mitigate damage to those assets

health risks associated with flood span different time scales

• immediate health impacts

  • drowning, traumatic injuries, electrocution, heat stress during power outages

• short/medium term health impacts

  • water contamination, sewer overflows, drinking water, infrastructure failure

  • infectious disease outbreaks, waterborne diseases, leptospirosis

  • interrupted medical care, dialysis, insulin, oxygen dependent patients

• long term health impacts

  • mental health effects, displacement and housing insecurity, mold exposure, chronic disease exacerbation

leptospirosis

• a flu like zoonotic disease that is largely associated with exposure to urine of infected animals

• large outbreaks frequently occur after flood events

• 1 million cases annually, resulting in 60,000 deaths

• lower income countries are disproportionately affected

• incidence of leptospirosis will increase with climate change

water storage

• is the retention of water

  • through natural or artificial means for future use to balance supply and demands for drinking water, irrigation, fore safety and hydropower

• natural storage- aquifer, lakes, soil

• artificial storage- tanks, reservoirs, towers

large damn projects

• such as 3 gores dam

  • have become increasingly common

• provide a large capacity to generate hydroelectric power

• provide a larger centralized water storage that is the sufficient to buffer seasonal and interannual variability in rainfall

• provide water during dry seasons and multi-year droughts

• enables large-scale irrigation for agriculture

water storage

• provide critical flood control and downstream flow regulation

negative aspects are frequently noted of large dam projects

• increased methane emissions in anoxic sediment

• population displacement of people living in areas now submerged

• potential increase in disease risk

  • reservoirs convert flowing water to stagnant water, creating a potentially favorable environment for mosquitoes

• ecological disruptions of both rover and terrestrial habit

sir Lankas tank cascades

• diverse set of climate conditions

• chronically water-constricted in its dry zone to the northeast

• rainfall is highly seasonal and variable

• limited ground water availability

• water storage was necessary for permanent human settlement

• between 2400-1000 years ago a cascade of water tanks was developed to help population thrive in prolonged periods of dry weather

• bedrock is not suitable for aquifers, so reliance on groundwater is not a viable option

• water is released from a tank at high elevation to support a rice paddy via irrigation canals

• leaving the rice paddy, this water is re-captured by a tank at lower elevation, which goes on to support a further rice paddy

• these interconnected revisors enable sustainable storage and use of the limited water resources

direct potable reuse

• the US wastewater is thoroughly treated before discharge into the environment

• direct portable reuse

  • takes conventional wastewater, applies additional treatment to purify the water to drinking water standards, then introduces the water into the drinking water treatment system for reuse

  • suffers from poor public perception

indirect portable reuse

• uses the purified wastewater to recharge groundwater aquifers or surface water reservoirs, still allowing for use of the wastewater

Direct and indirect potable reuse projects are appearing throughout the US especially in regions that experience water stress

portable reuse

• direct potable reuse

  • requires intensive monitoring to ensure high treatment standards are met, while the indirect potable reuse has the luxury of an environmental buffer in the event of operational error

• indirect potable reuse

  • can be challenging to implement it appropriate environmental buffer/aquifer isn’t present

many different methods exist for enhancing the recharge of aquifers of varying levels of complexity

bacteria, viruses, protozoa

water borne viruses non-envople viruses

• most water borne viruses are direaheal diseases

gram negative thin layer of polysaccroad

• most pthogens are gram negative

protozoa

• cyst form is resistant mini form

• active living structure as well

c. diff is not water borne, same with amoebiasis

rotavirus and adenovirus can be respiratory

pathogens of concern in US are very different from lower and lower-middle income countries

• drinking water treatment plants are extremely effective at removing bacteria and virus

• cyypot and giardia are resilient to disinfection and are occasionally responsible for outbreaks when they break through municipalities filtration systems

• legionella infections occur from mismanages water distribution

children under 5 are particular susceptible to waterborne diseases

• global cause of deaths for children under 5

• diarrhea account for 9.1% of under 5 deaths in 2019

• largely considered preventable with low cost interventions

• better nutrition is number one thing to help fight diarrheal disease

• countries of lower sociodemographic index are more likely to experience higher rate of diarrheal mortality in children under 5

Milwaukee 1993 - case study

• LARGEST KNOW WATERBORNE DISEASE OUTBREAK

• water was coming from lake Michigan

• over 400,000 indv were exposed

• over 4,000 were hospitalized

• cryptosporidiosis

• 70 people died

  • most immunocompromised people

• spring snowmelt and heavy rainfall increased runoff in lake michigan

• runoff likely carried animal and human fecal contamination from various sources

• turbidity overwhelmed the municipal water treatment plant, causing contaminated water to be distributed

• filter can get cracked leading to water to not be filtered

  • breakthrough

  • rate of diarrheal was seen higher in southern part of town

case study- Hatiti cholera

• largest and deadliest modern chloral epidemic since 2010 with sig resurgence since 2022

• Hatti had a powerful earthquake

• 200,000 people killed

• 1 million displaced

• water sanitation infrastructure damaged

• UN peacekeepes visited Hatit with cholera

• by December number of cases was over 90,000

• between 2010-2019 total of 820,000 cases of cholera

• with nearly 10,000 deaths

• it has become reestablished in 2022 due to governmental and social instability

• 14,000 cases were reported by end of 2022

• cholera is now an intermittent heath risk in hatit

cholera

• induces acute and dealty diarrhea due to the production of cholera toxin after it colonizes the small intense

• CDK

• can dehydrate in a matter of hours

3 prongs of WASH

• water treatment

• sanitation

• hygiene

fecal oral route exposure

• f-diagram

• highlight exposure pathways to infected feces through flies, fields, fluids, fingers and foods

• public services for drinking waters, sanitation and hygiene provide lifesaving barriers

  • water sanitation

  • hand washing

  • barrier on toliets

lack of WASH access means a very different environmental health issues than those with safe WASH access

• low and lower-middle income countries are burdened with the overwhelming majority of WASH attributed deaths and DALY’s

• about 80% of those without basic WASH live in rural areas

drinking water services: Basic

• use of imporved drinking water source

• collection of water takes no more than 30 mins round trip

• piped water

• public tap or standpipe

• protected spring

• packaged water

• collection of rainwater (not ideal)

further into basic service

• free from contamination

• accessible on premises

• available when needed

• safely managed service

billions of people have gained access to water, sanitation and hygiene services since 2000

objectives of drinking water treatment

• water that is potable

  • safe to drink - protective of human health

  • not necessarily esthetically pleasing

• that it is palatable

  • esthetically pleasing

  • presence of chemical does not pose threat to human health

  • parameters include chloride, color, corrosivity, iron, manganese, taste and order

• that is meets regulatory criteria/standards

• without interruption

• at reasonable cost

what defines water quality

• regulated by safe drinking water act

• physical appearance

  • color, taste, odor, temp, turbidity

• chemical agents

  • metals

  • inorganic compounds

  • organic compounds

• microbial agents

  • viruses, bacteria, protozoa

• radionuclides (physical agent)

coagulation

• chemical is added to help particles stick together

flocculation

• sticky particles grow in size to create flocks

• once flocks developed all particles go to sedimentation basin to settle out

ground water vs surface water

surface

• microorganisms

ground water

• chemicals

US EPA

• 94% of us population served by community water systems

generally major risk of surface water are exposure to microbial pathogens and chemical exposure

ground water risk is chemical exposure both organic and inorganic

coagualtion

• addition on chemical such as ferric sulfate aluminum sulfate to destabilize colloids a rapid mixing device

flocculation

• gentle agitation of water that has been coagulated to promote particle contact and formation or large particles that settles out

sedimentation basin

• providing relatively tranquil conditions to allow the solids that can settle out of the water to be removed by the action of gravity

• particles are anything that is suspended in that water

  • microorganisms

filtration

• polishing of water through a pack of granular media rto removes remaining particles

disinfection

• addition of disinfectant

residual disinfectant

• small amount of chlorine left in the treated water to prevent microbial growth in the distribution system

free chlorine

• cl2 HOCL OCL

• most common disinfectant in the us effective chemical disinfectant against most pathogen

• not crypto

• provides residual disinfectant, forms chlorinated disinfection biproducts

ozone

• common used in eurpoe

• effective chemical disnfectant

• no residual

UV lights

• effective physical disinfectant

• good against cyts

• no residuals