Cogs 11 Exam 2 Flashcards

What is problematic information? (Week 6)

Any information that is false or harmful, and it includes misinformation, disinformation, and malinformation. Ex: A false rumor, real private info shared to harm someone.

What is misinformation? (Week 6)

false information that someone shares because they think it is true.
Example: A friend shares a fake health tip online without realizing it is incorrect.

What is disinformation? (Week 6)

Disinformation is false information that is shared on purpose to trick or mislead people. Ex: A fake political post created to make people vote a certain way.

What is malinformation? (Week 6)

true information that is shared to hurt someone or damage their reputation. Ex: Posting someone’s real private messages to embarrass them.

Why does intent matter in problematic information? (Week 6)

Intent matters because it changes how we understand the cause, impact, and solution to the information. Ex: Misinformation may need education, while disinformation may require platform moderation.

What are cognitive biases? (Week 6)

Cognitive biases are systematic patterns of thinking errors that affect judgment and decision-making. Ex: Judging something quickly based on a headline instead of reading the full article

What are heuristics? (Week 6)

Heuristics are mental shortcuts the brain uses to make decisions quickly, but they can sometimes lead to errors. Ex: Assuming something is true because it is easy to remember.

What is confirmation bias? (Week 6)

Confirmation bias is when people favor information that supports their existing beliefs and ignore contradictory evidence. Ex: Only watching news sources that agree with your opinions.

What is belief perseverance? (Week 6)

Belief perseverance is when you keep believing something even after it has been proven wrong. Ex: Still believing a myth even after a teacher explains why it is false.

What is reactance? (Week 6)

Reactance is when people resist or do the opposite of what they are told because they feel their freedom is being threatened. Ex: Sharing a post more after being told not to share it.

What is the availability heuristic? (Week 6)

The availability heuristic is when people judge something as more common or likely because it is easy to recall. Ex: Thinking shark attacks are common after seeing news stories about them.

What is anchoring bias? (Week 6)

Anchoring bias is when people rely too heavily on the first piece of information they receive when making judgments. Ex: A shirt is marked $100, then “discounted” to $60, and it feels like a good deal.

What is the framing effect? (Week 6)

The framing effect is when people make different decisions depending on how information is presented, even if the facts are the same. Ex: “90% success rate” feels better than “10% failure rate.”

What is negativity bias? (Week 6)

Negativity bias is when negative information has a stronger effect on thinking than positive information. Ex: One negative comment feels more impactful than many positive ones.

What is in-group bias? (Week 6)

In-group bias is when people prefer or trust members of their own social group more than outsiders. Ex: Trusting advice more from friends than strangers.

What is the halo effect? (Week 6)

The halo effect is when one positive trait influences how you judge everything else about a person. Ex: Assuming someone is smart because they are attractive or popular.

What is the sunk cost fallacy? (Week 6)

The sunk cost fallacy is when people continue something because they already invested time, money, or effort into it. Ex: Finishing a bad movie just because you already started it.

Why do social media platforms spread problematic information? (Week 6)

Social media spreads problematic information because algorithms prioritize engagement, and emotional or attention-grabbing content spreads faster than accurate information. Ex: A shocking fake headline goes viral before fact-checks appear.

What are affordances in social media? (Week 6)

Affordances are features of a platform that shape how users behave, such as likes, shares, and algorithmic feeds.
Ex: “Like” buttons encourage popularity-based posting instead of accuracy.

How does negativity bias + availability heuristic work online? (Week 6)

Negative and emotional content is easier to remember, so people overestimate how common or important it is. Ex: Seeing crime videos online makes people think crime is increasing everywhere.

How does confirmation bias appear on social media? (Week 6)

Social media algorithms often show users content they already agree with, which strengthens their existing beliefs over time. Ex: A user who likes fitness content mainly sees more fitness posts.

What is the just world hypothesis? (Week 6)

The belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get. Ex: Assuming someone must have done something wrong to deserve bad luck.

What is the Barnum effect? (Week 6)

When people believe vague statements are personally accurate even though they could apply to many people.
Ex: Horoscopes feel accurate because they are vague enough to fit anyone.

What is the Dunning-Kruger effect? (Week 6)

When people with little knowledge overestimate their ability, while experts underestimate theirs. Ex: Someone thinks they understand a topic after only a few videos.

What is declinism? (Week 6)

Declinism is the belief that things are getting worse over time even when data shows improvement. Ex: Thinking society is worse today because of negative news exposure.

What is the backfire effect? (Week 6)

The backfire effect is when correcting someone’s wrong belief makes them believe it even more strongly. Ex: Showing facts to someone causes them to double down on their incorrect belief.

What is the main argument of Kozyreva et al. (2020)? (Week 7)

Kozyreva et al. argue that the internet creates unique cognitive challenges that make it difficult for people to think, decide, and learn effectively. They believe we need cognitive tools and better digital environments to help people navigate these challenges. Ex: Social media can make it harder to tell what is true, so people need strategies to evaluate information more carefully.

What are the four major challenges of online environments according to Kozyreva et al. (2020)? (Week 7)

Kozyreva et al. argue that online environments create four major challenges: problematic information, manipulative choice architectures, AI-assisted information architectures, and distracting environments. Ex: TikTok can expose users to misinformation, manipulate choices through design, use algorithms to control information and constantly compete for attention.

What is problematic information? (Week 7)

Problematic information is information that is false or harmful and makes it difficult to reason and identify what is true. Ex: A viral false rumor spreads online and influences people's opinions.

What is a manipulative choice architecture? (Week 7)

A manipulative choice architecture is a digital environment designed to influence your decisions without you fully realizing it. Ex: A website making the "Accept" button bright and easy to click while hiding the "Decline" option.

What is an AI-assisted information architecture? (Week 7)

An AI-assisted information architecture is when algorithms decide what information you see online. Ex: YouTube recommending videos based on your previous viewing history.

Why are AI-assisted information architectures concerning? (Week 7)

Kozyreva et al. argue that they reduce transparency and personal control because algorithms make decisions about what information reaches users. Ex: Two people searching the same topic may receive completely different information.

What is a distracting environment? (Week 7)

A distracting environment constantly competes for your attention and makes it harder to focus. Ex: Notifications appearing while you are trying to study.

What is datafication? (Week 7)

Datafication is the process of turning people's behaviors, preferences, and actions into data that can be collected and analyzed. Ex: Spotify tracking your listening habits to recommend music.

What is a dark pattern? (Week 7)

A dark pattern is a design choice that benefits a company by steering users toward decisions they may not have intended to make. Ex: Making it very easy to subscribe but difficult to cancel.

What is obstruction? (Week 7)

Obstruction is a type of dark pattern that makes an action difficult so users give up before completing it. Ex: Creating an account takes one click, but deleting it requires several complicated steps.

What are hidden defaults? (Week 7)

Hidden defaults are pre-selected settings that users often accept without realizing it. Ex: A website automatically collecting user data unless the user changes the settings.

What is nudging? (Week 7)

Nudging changes people's behavior by changing the environment in which they make decisions. Ex: A platform asking "Have you read this article?" before allowing you to share it

What is boosting? (Week 7)

Boosting helps people build skills and knowledge so they can make better decisions themselves. Ex: Teaching users how to identify misleading information online.

What is self-nudging? (Week 7)

Self-nudging is when you intentionally change your own environment to encourage better behavior. Ex: When you put your phone in another room while studying or turn off notifications before starting homework.

What is the biggest difference between nudging and boosting? (Week 7)

Nudging changes the environment to guide behavior, while boosting strengthens people's abilities so they can make their own informed decisions. Ex: A warning label is a nudge, while teaching fact-checking skills is a boost.

What is deliberate ignorance? (Week 7)

Deliberate ignorance is choosing not to consume information that is likely to be misleading, manipulative, or low quality. Ex: Ignoring obvious clickbait instead of clicking on it.

Why does Kozyreva et al. support deliberate ignorance? (Week 7)

Because there is too much information online, and not all of it is useful. Sometimes ignoring bad information leads to better decisions than trying to read everything. Ex: Avoiding sensational headlines and sticking to reliable sources.

What is inoculation? (Week 7)

Inoculation prepares people to resist misinformation before they encounter it. Ex: Teaching people common misinformation tricks before they see fake news.

What is prebunking? (Week 7)

Prebunking happens before exposure to misinformation and teaches people how manipulation works. Ex: Learning how conspiracy theories are created before seeing one online.

What is debunking? (Week 7)

Debunking happens after someone has already encountered misinformation and tries to correct it. Ex: Reading a fact-check after believing a false story.

Why is prebunking usually better than debunking? (Week 7)

It is easier to prevent misinformation from influencing people than it is to change their minds afterward. Ex: A vaccine works before infection; medicine works after infection.

What is technocognition? (Week 7)

Technocognition is the idea that technology should be designed using what we know about human psychology and thinking.

Ex: Adding fact-check reminders before users share questionable content.

What is a distracting environment? (Week 7)

A distracting environment constantly competes for your attention and makes it harder to focus. Ex: Notifications interrupting you while studying.

What is the biggest takeaway from Week 7? (Week 7)

Kozyreva et al. believe that digital environments are not neutral. They shape what people see, what they believe, and how they make decisions. Because of this, people need tools like boosting, self-nudging, deliberate ignorance, and inoculation to navigate the internet more effectively.