AP Psychology AP Test Study Set

Sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system review and represent stimulus energies from our environment

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Bottom-up processing

Perception is influenced big one primarily relies on external sensory information, begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

Top-down processing

perception is influenced by if one primarily relies on internal prior expectations, guided by higher-level mental processes as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

Transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another

First step to our sensory systems

senses receive sensory information (specialized receptor cells)

Second step to our sensory systems

transform stimulation into neural impulses (transduction)

Third step to our sensory systems

deliver neural information to the brain

Absolute Threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time, allows us to detect important sights, sounds, textures, tastes, and smells in our environment.

Weber’s Law

The amount needed to detect change in a stimulus is proportional to the original size of the stimulus

Difference Threshold/Just-noticeable difference

The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time, minimum difference needed for a person to perceive that a change has occurred.

Sensory Adaptation

Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation and exposure

Selective Attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Cocktail Party Effect

your ability to attend to only one voice among many, you can detect your name in an unattended voice from across the room

Inattentional Blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is divided elsewhere

Change Blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment

Perceptual Set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another, determined by schemas

Schema

concepts our brain use to organize and interpret unfamiliar information

Vision

our eyes receive light energy and transduce it into neural messages that our brain processes into what we consciously see

Wavelength

determines hue and color. short= high frequency (bluish color, high sounds), and long= low frequency

Hue

color due to wavelength

Amplitude

how high the wavelength is, tells us intensity and brightness

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters, allows light to pass into the eye

retina

light sensitive layer that lines the back of the eye, contains photoreceptors that absorb light and transmit those signals to the brain

lens

transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to focus images on the retina

accomodation

the eyes ability to adjust its focus to see objects clearly at different distances

nearsightedness

close objects appear clearer and farther objects appear blurrier, caused by the eyeball is too long of cornea is too curved, light focuses in front of it, not on it

farsightedness

Close object are blurry, distant objects are clear, caused by the eyeball is too short of cornea is too flat, so light focuses behind the retina

photoreceptors

located in the fovea of the eye, process color and fine details

rods

photoreceptor cells that detect black, white, and gray, necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, perceive movement

cones

photoreceptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and function in daylight/well-lit conditions

ganglion cells

receive electrical messages from other retinal neurons, and then pass that information to the brain via the optic nerve

blind spot

where optic nerve leaves the eye, there are no receptor cells

visual/optic nerve

carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

fovea

a small pit at the retina that is responsible for sharp, detailed, color vision

trichromatic theory

the retina contains three different color receptors which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

color-deficient vision

unable to distinguish certain shades due to damage to one or more cones or ganglion cells

monochromatism

someone has only one functional cone cell, or none, can’t perceive colors

dichromatism

can’t distinguish between colors, an individual has only two types of functioning cone cells instead of the normal 3

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes enable color vision, when one’s turned on the other turns off

afterimage

after tiring neural responses to green, yellow, or black, you see their opponent color when you look at a white screen or a background 

prosopagnosia

a disorder characterized by the inability to recognize familiar faces, functional sensation, incomplete perception

blindsight

a person can respond to a visual stimulus without continuously seeing it

gestalt

form or whole

gestalt psychology

emphasizes the brain’s tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings, a black image can make an image when placed onto a white background

grouping

once we discriminate figure from ground, we must also organize the figure into a meaningful form

proximity

we group nearby objects together

similarity

we percieve groups or patterns when objects look similar to one another

closure

we fill in gaps to create a whole, complete object

depth-perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions and to judge distance, uses information from one or both eyes

binocular cues

depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes, can judge how close an object is to you

retinal disparity

the slight difference in the images projected on to the left and right retinas due to the eyes different positions, a binocular depth cue used by the brain to judge distance and create depth perception

convergence

the inward turning of the eyes to focus on a nearby object, a binocular depth cue used by the brain to judge distance and create depth perception

monocular cues

depth cues available to either eye alone, 2D images

interposition

if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer, the object that is obscured looks farther away

linear perspective

parallel lines appear to converge at a vanishing point on the horizon

relative size

if two objects are roughly the same size, the object that looks the largest will be judges as being the closest to the observer

relative clarity

objects that appear sharp, clear, and in focus are seen as closer than more hazy objects

texture gradient

a graduated change in the texture or gain of the visual field whereby objects with smaller, finer, less detailed textures are perceived as more distant

apparent movement

the perception of movement even when options are not actually moving

phi phenomenon

when two or more adjacent lights blink on or off in quick succession

stroboscopic movement

the illusion of continuous motion created by flashing a series of still images in rapid succession

perceptual constancy

perceive objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change

color constancy

we perceive color as constant regardless of any external stimuli changes

shape and size constancies

we perceive shape and size as constant regardless of any external stimuli changes

audition

the sense or act of hearing

frequency (wavelengths)

the frequency of wavelengths is how fast they occur

pitch

determined b frequency, tone’s experienced highness or lowness

amplitude

determines loudness

outer ear

outermost portion of the ear, funnels sound waves from environment to inner portion of your ear

eardrum

vibrates ossicles of the middle ear

middle ear

between the eardrum and cochlea containing ossicles that transmit vibrations of the eardrums to the cochlea

cochlea

where transduction occurs, sound waves trigger neural impulses

inner ear

contains bony structures filled with fluid

Basilar membrane

in cochlea, vibrates in response to different sound frequencies

auditory nerve

sends neural messages to the auditory cortex

sensorineural hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves, also called nerve deafness

conduction hearing loss

caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea (middle ear)

place theory

pitch is directly linked to the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated, used to detect high pitches

frequency theory

the rate of nerve impulses matches the frequency of a tone, used to detect low pitches

volley theory

auditory neurons fire in rapid succession, allowing the brain to perceive pitches that extend the firing rate of individual neurons

sound localization

the placement of our ears allows us to enjoy 3D hearing, just like our eyes give us 3D vision; sound waves strike one ear sooner and more intensely than the other

touch

a mix of distinct skin senses for pressure, warmth, cold, and pain

nociceptors

sensory receptors that detect harmful temperatures, pressure, or chemicals

gate-control theory

suggests that spinal cord contains a neurological gate that blocks pain signals/allows them to pass on to the brain

phantom limb sensations

feeling pain or movement in nonexistent limbs

gustation

taste, chemical sense because both have sensory receptors that respond to chemical molecules in the food we eat and the air we breathe.

oleogustus

proposed taste sensation for detecting fat, still debated in science

taste receptor cells

project hair like extensions that sense food molecules; bind to receptors and cause chemical changes within the cell that results in neural impulses being transmitted to the brain

olfaction

olfactory receptor cells detect airborne chemical molecules, bypass the thalamus, linked to memory

pheromones

olfactory chemical messages that trigger social/behavioral responses in others of the same species; play a role in mating, communication, and marking

kinesthesia

our movement sense; the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts which allows the body to move in a coordinated way, a major component in muscle memory and hand-eye coordination, swimming is an example

vestibular sense

our balance sense; the system for sensing the position and movement of the head, which contributes to our ability to maintain balance

semicircular canals

structures in the inner ear that detect rotational movements of the head, tied to the cerebellum

sensory interaction

one sense influences another, combining sensory information to create a unified perception.

synesthesia

a neurological condition where stimulation of one sense automatically triggers experiences in another unrelated sense.

Hair cells

movement triggers neural impulses in adjacent nerve cells

Central Nervous System

The brain and the spinal cord, decision maker. (Command center and connects brain and peripheral nervous systems)

Peripheral Nervous System

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body (gathers sensory information and transmits CNS decisions to other body parts)