Intro to Psychology Exam #4

Motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior; arises from the interplay between nature (bodily "push") and nurture ("pulls" from our experiences, thoughts and culture)

What are the four perspectives psychologists have used to understand motivated behavior?

1. Instinct (evolutionary) theory - focuses on genetically predisposed behaviors

2. Drive reduction theory - focuses on how we respond to inner pushes & external pulls

3. Arousal theory - focuses on finding the right level of stimulation

4. Maslow's hierarchy of needs - focuses on priority of some needs over others

Instinct

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

instinct theory (replaced by evolutionary perspective)

Suggests that much of our behavior is motivated by innate, unlearned, and genetically inherited instincts that evolved to promote survival and reproduction

ex. baby's innate reflex to root for the nipple and suck when they're born

physiological needs

A basic bodily requirement; creates an aroused, motivated state/drive that pushes us to reduce that need

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need; when this need increases, so does our psychological drive to reduce it

ex. when a person becomes thirsty and then drinks water to satisfy that need

Homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

homeostatic motiovation

biological, survival-based drives that maintain internal balance

ex. hunger, thirst

non-homeostatic motivation

psychological or social drives not required for survival

ex. sexual motivation, achievement motivation

incentive

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

Arousal theory

Suggests that our emotional and behavioral states are influenced by our level of physiological arousal; focuses on finding the right level of stimulation

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases (moderate arousal leads to optimal performance!!)

ex. a little nervous before a test helps you focus, but extreme anxiety makes you perform poorly

Who was Abraham Maslow and what was his contribution to psychology?

Humanistic psychologist who developed the hierarchy of needs - a theory explaining how people are motivated by progressively higher levels of needs

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

What are the five levels of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs? (Bottom to top)

1. Physiological needs - food, water, rest

2. Safety needs

3. Love and belonging - relationships

4. Esteem - feeling of accomplishment/recognition

5. Self-actualization - achieving one's full potential

self-actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

self-transcendence

according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self

What are some limitations of Maslow's hierarchy or needs? (3)

1. may not apply universally across cultures and individuals

2. people don't always follow the hierarchy in order (not universally fixed)

3. psychologists today have noted other basic human motives (desiring social status, parenting offspring, etc)

What are Maslow's two types of motivation?

Deficiency (D) needs and Growth (Being or B) needs

What are Deficiency (D) motives?

motivations that arise from lack or deprivation (things we need to survive or feel secure)

- when these things aren't met we feel tension/discomfort

- ex. hunger motivating u to eat

What are Growth (Being or B) motives?

motivations based on the desire to grow, develop, and reach one's full potential

- emerge after basic needs are met

- ex. pursuing higher learning after basic schooling

What are Maslow's cognitive needs in his mini triangle? (2)

1. knowing - the desire to learn new facts and gain information

2. understanding - the desire to make sense of that knowledge and see meaning or connections

Nuclear Destiny

our inner core potential or "true self" that we are naturally motivated to grow toward; similar to self-actualization — becoming who we are meant to be.

humanistic psychology

an approach to understanding human nature that emphasizes the positive potential of human beings

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

Who was Carl Rodgers and what was his contribution to psychology?

leading humanistic psychologist who believed people are naturally good and capable of growth - developed the person-centered perspective

What did Rogers' person-centered perspective say?

people are naturally good and equipped with self-actualizing tendencies; unless held back by an environment that inhibits growth, we are primed for growth and fulfillment

Rogers believed that a growth-promoting social climate provides what three things?

1. genuineness - people are open, honest, and real with us; they don't hide

2. acceptance (unconditional positive regard) - we feel valued and accepted without needing to earn it or be perfect

3. empathy - others truly listen and try to understand our feelings and experiences

unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

What are the main critiques of humanistic psychology? (4)

1. too vague and subjective - concepts like "self-actualization" are hard to define or measure scientifically

2. overly optimistic/naive - critics say it ignores human capacity for evil or destructive behavior

3. individualistic bias - focuses too much on personal growth and self-fulfillment, which may not apply well across all cultures

4. lacks scientific evidence - methods rely heavily on personal reports rather than experimentally testable data

What was the Cannon and Washburn experiment associated with hunger and what discovery did it lead to?

Cannon and Washburn studied hunger by having Washburn swallow a balloon that measured his stomach contractions; found that when Washburn felt hungry, his stomach was contracting, suggesting hunger is partly caused by these contractions.

Glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.

set point

the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

basic metabolic rate

the body's resting rate of energy output

obesity

defined as a body mass index (BMI) measurement of 30 or higher. (Overweight individuals have a BMI of 25 or higher.)

What is sexual motivation?

A biological and psychological drive related to reproduction, pleasure, and intimacy.It motivates behavior that ensures the survival of the species.

What is achievement motivation and who defined it?

Henry Murray defined achievement motivation as a desire for significant accomplishment, for mastering skills or ideas, for control, and for attaining a high standard.

What factors influence achievement motivation? (4)

- birth order: firstborns often show higher achievement motivation (more responsibility, expectations).

- culture: individualist (personal success & competition) v. collectivist (group success & teamwork)

- family environment & expectations

- early experiences w/ mastery (encouragement, hobbies, challenges).

what are the four parenting styles identified by Diana Baumrind?

authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, neglectful

authoritarian parenting

style of parenting marked by emotional coldness, imposing rules, expecting obedience with no explanation

authoritative parenting

parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible and listen to their children; lots of discussion and dialogue

permissive parenting

style of parenting in which parent makes few, if any demands on a child's behavior but still know what's going on in childs life

neglectful parenting

a parenting style characterized by a lack of parental involvement in the child's life; dont know what's going on and dont care

which style of parenting produces the highest achievement motivation?

authoritative parenting because it combines high expectations w/ warmth, support, and autonomy fostering confidence, self-discipline, and strong internal motivation to achieve.

Asexual

having no sexual attraction to others

Testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

Estrogen

sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity

When do sex hormones influence us during our life? (3)

1. prenatal period - direct sexual development before birth

2. puberty - surge of sex hormones ushers us into adolescence, triggering sexual maturation and interest

3. after puberty into adulthood - facilitate sexual behavior, maintaining sexual motivation and function throughout adulthood and into later life (though they gradually decline with age)

What factors weaken sexual inhibition? (4)

- alcohol (reduces self-control and judgment)

- arousing stimuli (pornography, erotic media)

- strong emotions (stress, excitement, or high arousal)

- social situations that lower restraint (parties, peer pressure)

Who was Alfred Kinsey and what was his contribution to psychology?

- biologist who pioneered human sexual motivation research

- conducted large-scale studies on sexual behavior (sample ≈ 11,000)

- produced nomothetic findings (general patterns across people).

- work was influential but problematic due to sampling issues

What were the main issues and methods in Kinsey's research? (4)

- early samples were not representative -> threatened validity

- struggled with stratification and representativeness

- tried to fix this by using whole sampling methods and collecting data across the U.S

- found social class strongly shaped sexual attitudes (more liberal = more open)

Who were William Masters and Virginia Johnson and what was their contribution to psychology?

Pioneering sex researchers, conducted laboratory observations of sexual activity, identified four stages of the human sexual response cycle & studied the physiological and psychological aspects of sexual function; helped normalize the study of sex and led to advances in sex therapy and understanding sexual disorders.

Sexual Response Cycle (Masters and Johnson)

the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

What are the four stages of the sexual response cycle identified by Masters and Johnson?

1. Excitement - genital areas become engorged w/ blood; physiological arousal begins

2. Plateau - arousal levels off but remains high; breathing, pulse and blood pressure increase

3. Orgasm - muscle contractions occur throughout the body; sexual release and peak pleasure

4. Resolution - body gradually returns to its uncrossed state; includes a refractory period for males

What were the major criticisms of Masters & Johnson? (5)

1. unrepresentative volunteer sample

2. artificial lab setting

3. methods seen as invasive/unethical

4. paired strangers to have sex in some studies

5. focused mostly on physiology, not emotions

What are two major concerns with sex-survey research?

1. representativeness: people willing to take sex surveys may not reflect the whole population

2. social desirability bias: participants may give answers that look good, not answers that are fully honest

coolidge effect

the tendency for males (in many species, including humans) to show renewed sexual arousal when introduced to a new partner after becoming sexually fatigued with a familiar one

refractory period

in human sexuality, a resting period that occurs after orgasm, during which a person cannot achieve another orgasm (women have much shorter refractory periods than men)

sexual dysfunction

a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning at any point in the sexual response cycle

erectile disorder

Inability to develop or maintain an erection due to insufficient blood flow to the penis

female orgasmic disorder

A dysfunction in which a woman persistently fails to reach orgasm, experiences orgasms of very low intensity, or has very delayed orgasms.

Paraphillias

sexual arousal from fantasies, behaviors, or urges involving nonhuman objects, the suffering of self or others, and/or non consenting persons

AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)

a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections.

sexual orientation

The direction of our sexual attractions, as reflected in our longing and fantasies

Affiliation Need (Need to Belong)

the need to build relationships and to feel part of a group (key human motivation)

Ostracism

deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups

narcissism

excessive self-love and self-absorption

grit

in psychology, passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

self-determination theory

the theory that we feel motivated to satisfy our needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Fulfilling these motives increases our health, reduces stress, and boosts our self- esteem.

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

ex. baking a cake for the simple pleasure of it

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

ex. baking. cake to sell it for money

emotion

a response of the whole organism, involving...

1. bodily arousal (heart pounding)

2. expressive behaviors (quickened pace)

3. conscious experience (is this a kidnapping) and feelings (panic + fear)

Who are Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen and what is their contribution to psychology?

emotion researchers who discovered that basic facial expressions of emotion are universal across cultures; developed the Facial Action Coding System (FACS)

facial action coding system (FACS)

codes facial expressions by identifying specific muscle movements ("action units"). It allows researchers to objectively measure and analyze emotional expressions across cultures.

emotional quotient (EQ)

measure of emotional intelligence—your ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively in yourself and others.

ex. calming yourself down before speaking in class, noticing a friend is upset and asking if they're okay.

facial deceit

when we intentionally control or alter our facial expressions to hide our true emotions or convey emotions we don't actually feel

Why do we engage in facial deceit? (4)

1. cultural - different cultures expect certain emotional expressions, so we adjust our faces to fit in

2. vocational - our job or role requires us to show certain emotions

3. personal - we hide or fake emotions to protect our own feelings or privacy

4. immediate need - we change our expression quickly to handle a situation

James-Lange Theory of emotion

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli (emotion follows arousal)

ex. see a bear -> start trembling + heart races -> interpret these feelings as scared

Cannon-Bard Theory of emotion

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion

ex. our heart races at the same time that we feel afraid

Two-Factor Theory of emotion (Schacter-Singer)

to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal

ex. ur heart races and palms sweat:

1. See a bear -> label it as fear

2. On a first date -> label it as excitement/attraction

Zajonc; LeDoux Theory of emotion

some embodied responses happen instantly, without conscious appraisal

ex. we automatically feel startled by a sound in the forest before labeling it as a threat

Lazarus theory of emotion

cognitive appraisal is the first step in an emotional response and all other aspects of an emotion, including physiological arousal, depend on it.

ex. hearing a strange sound, thinking its a potential threat causing ur heart to race and leads to fear

polygraph

a machine used in attempts to detect lies; measures emotion-linked changes in perspiration, heart rate, and breathing.

How do men and women differ in sensitivity to emotions and nonverbal cues?

- Women: better at detecting emotions, express and describe feelings more complexly, more emotionally responsive and expressive, open to feelings across cultures.

- Men: simpler emotional descriptions, less nonverbal sensitivity, less expressive.

facial feedback effect

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

ex. smiling to make yourself feel happier

behavior feedback effect

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions

ex. acting happy and starting to feel happier as a result

stanslavski method

a style of acting where performers use their own emotions, memories, and experiences to create realistic, believable characters; focuses on living the role, not just playing it

what are the five components of the smile?

1. universal greeting across cultures.

2. babies smile ~3 months, showing attachment to caregivers.

3. animals "smile" differently — their greetings aren't emotional smiles like humans.

4. real vs. fake smiles use different muscle patterns.

5. smiles can signal submission or deference to higher-status people (and in animals).

Catharsis

the idea that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges

ex. therapist encouraging patient to scream into pillow to release anger

What are three effective ways to manage anger?

1. wait: give the arousal time to decrease — emotions cool down if u wait long enough

2. find a healthy distraction/support: exercise, play music, or talk to a friend; avoids thinking

3. distance yourself: mentally step back and view the situation from afar/from the future — reduces anger and aggression

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood (the reverse is also true: doing good promotes good feeling)

positive psychology

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.

subjective well-being

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality

of life.

How does happiness influence prosocial behavior?

People who are happier help others more because:

1. Cognitive dissonance — preserve our good mood by helping others

2. Increased confidence — happiness boosts feelings of capability, making helping easier

What do studies show about wealth and happiness? (3)

- greater wealth does NOT reliably increase happiness

- lottery research shows people return to their baseline happiness after winning

- happiness patterns differ across social classes ("two-fold" findings)

adaptation-level phenomenon

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience

ex. get a pay raise and initially happy about it, but after a while you get used to it

relative deprivation

the perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare ourselves.

ex. feeling unhappy with ur pay after finding out coworkers earn more

stress

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.

approach and avoidance motives

the drive to move toward (approach) or away from (avoid) a stimulus

ex. studying hard because u want to get an A/avoid failing an exam

Who is Hans Selye's and what is his contribution to psychology?

Canadian scientist, studied animals' reactions to stressors like electric shock and surgery, helped make stress a major concept in psychology and medicine; proposed that the body has a general, universal response to any stressor (GAS)