Ancient Empires Exam 2

Polis

Ancient Greek city-state

Delian League

• League of Greek states founded in 477 BC to continue opposing the Persian Empire

• Athens controlled treasury and moved the treasury to the city in 454 BC

• Transitioned to the Athenian Empire

Phoros

Members of the Delian League contribute ships, men, and money as tribute to Athens

Cleruchs

Athenian citizens who settle on the territory of an allied polis (in the Delian League)

Melian Dialogue

Written by Thucydides

• Athens threatens island of Melos and demand Melos join the Empire

• “Might outweighs right”

Peloponnesian War

• Delian League v. Peloponnesian League

• 404 BC: Athens surrenders, spared by the Spartans

Philip II

• Reigned 359-336 BC

• Secured borders of Macedon through bribery, diplomacy, and warfare

• Introduced the Sarissa spear

• Prepared an army to invade Persia before his death

Isocrates

Sarissa

Spear introduced by Philip II used in phalanx formation

• 18 to 21 feet long

• Twice as long as hoplite spear

• Made Macedonian army more effective and maneuverable

Phalanx

Formation used in Macedonian army that made it more effective and maneuverable. Made use of the Sarissa and a smaller shield

Battle of Chaeronea

• 338 BC battle

• Philip and Alexander defeat the Greek armies following the Third Sacred War

• Moves Greece in direction of Panhellenism

League of Corinth

• 338/7 BC

• Alliance of Greek city-states under Philip as hegemon

• Philip prepares an army to invade Persia

Darius III of Persia

• Persian emperor who fought against Alexander the Great’s invastion

• Killed at the Battle of Issus as depicted on the Alexander Mosaic

Alexander III

• Assumed the throne of Macedon after Philip II’s death

• Crossed the Hellespont and subsequently conquers the Persian Empire

Battle of Granicus River

• 334 BC

• Persian satraps agree to stand and fight

• Persians have greater cavalry than Macedon but less well trained infantry

• Persians are defeated by Macedonia

Battle of Issus

• 333 BC

• Meeting of Alexander and Darius

• Alexander charges with cavalry and kills Darius

Battle of Guagamela

• 331 BC

• Persians massively outnumber the Macedonians

• Alexander pursues Darius and causes Persians to dissipate

Alexander Mosaic

Depicts the Battle of Issue and memorializes Alexander’s charge against Darius. Located in Pompeii in 2nd century BC

Persepolis

Capital of Persian Empire burned in 330 BC

Bessus (Artaxerxes V)

Proclaims himself emperor following the death of Darius and continues fight against Macedonians in Bactria

Alexandria(s)

Multiple cities founded by the Macedonians across the empire, reflecting the creation of the Hellenistic world

Rhoxane

Bactrian princess who married Alexander the Great. Example of a marriage alliance used to solidify Alexander’s power

Proskynesis

Practice of bowing down to kiss the floor. Macedonians disliked the ideas of divine kingship

Hyphasis River

Macedonian troops mutiny during a campaign against India in 326 BC, causing the Army to turn back

Susa

City where Alexander hosted a mass marriage ceremony in 324 BC, wedding Macedonian companions to Persian noblewomen. 30,000 barbarians were trained in Macedonian tactics and 10,000 veterans were discharged

Babylon

Possibly planned to be the new capital in 323 BC and site of preparation for an invasion of Arabia. Alexander ubruptly died after drinking unmixed wine

“Spear-Won Kingdoms”

Kingdoms formed by Alexander’s Macedonian generals following his death which were justified solely by military force

King Demetrius

Macedonian general and King who sought to reclaim control of the Empire, but was stopped at the Battle of Ipsus by a coalition of Alexander’s other generals

Ptolemaic Egypt

• Longest lasting dynasty in Egyptian history

• Alexander considered a Pharaoh

• Practice of sibling marriage (philadelphus) under belief that it was a Pharaonic custom

Seleucid Empire

• One of the kingdoms formed following Alexanders death

• Seleucus retains Bactrian wife

• Adopts tradition of cuneiform

• Founded several cities on the Syrian coast including Antioch

Attalid Kingdom

• Ruled around Pergammon

• Faced problems of marauding Celts but eventually defeated the Galatians

• Dying Gaul statue depicts Galatian warrior dying of his wounds; commissioned following Attalus’ victory

Republic (res publica)

• “public affairs”

• Formed in 509 BC following the ousting of King Tarquinius

Consuls

• Two magistrates elected annually to one-year terms

• Commanders of field army, supreme executive power in the city

• Veto power over each other

Senate

Originally an advisory body consisting of all ex-magistrates. Eventually came to have the force of law. Highly conservative and tradition bound

Cursus Honorum

Hierarchy of Roman elites, with consul the top position

Competitive Oligarchy

• Rules agreed upon by a consensus of the elite and no written constitution

• Gave ambitious men access to riches and power while expanding the state’s territory

• Power sharing prevents any one man or family from acquiring too much power

Patron-Client System

Wealthy Roman citizen sponsors a lower class family

• Patrons provide monetary and physical assistance to client families

• Clients support patrons with votes, entourage, and funerary displays

• Rome treated foreign communities with a similar dynamic

Punic Wars (246 - 146 BC)

Carthage destroyed 146 BC following 3 successive wars

Provincia

“The sphere within which a magistrate functions”

• 2nd Century: refers to a region

• Governed by a proconsul

Proconsul

Magistrate who governs a province following his term in office as Consul of Rome

Publicani

Private tax collectors contracted by the state

• Taxes are auctioned to the highest bidder who paid that amount to the state

• Winner goes on to collect the same amount in taxes (plus more)

Imperium

Power of the Roman magistrate

• Proconsul has full civil and military power over non-roman citizens (serving one year terms)

• Imperium of proconsul is outranked by the Consul

Day of Eleusis

• July 168 BC

• Antiochus invasion of Egypt prompts Ptolemy to send an embassy to Rome seeking help

• Roman delegation arrives in Alexandria and creates an ultimatum (literal line in sand)

Julius Caesar

Declared dictator for life in 44 BC before being assassinated a month later

• Public detested the idea of rule by a king

• Previously led significant military victories for Rome

Mark Anthony

Caesar’s right hand man who sought control over the Roman Empire following his assassination. Defeated at the Battle of Actium and committed suicide following Alexandria’s capture along with spouse Cleopatra VII

Cleopatra VII

Last Pharaoh of Egypt and spouse of Mark Anthony

Octavian/Augustus

Caesar’s grand-nephew who competed for power against Mark Anthony and ultimately claimed control over the entire Roman Republic:

• Augustus (Revered One)

• Imperator (Conqueror)

• Princeps (First Man of the Senate)

Battle of Actium

September 2, 31 BC

• Naval forces of Anthony and Cleopatra decisively defeated

• Alexandria captured shortly thereafter, leading to Octavian’s complete takeover of Roman Empire

Egypt

Province of tremendous wealth personally kept by Augustus. Would go on to help fund pay for soldiers and supply significant amounts of grain to the rest of the Roman Empire

Res Gestate Divi Augusti

“Achievements of Divine Augustus”

• Composed 14 AD

• Claims that Augustus was both “in complete control of affairs” and also that he transferred his power back to the people

Pax Romana

Regional peace as a result of Roman conquest:

1. Land confiscated from enemies or purchased from Egyptian wealth is given to discharged veterans

2. Augustus maintains control of legions in his own hands, with legates serving as provincial governors

3. Legions are stationed at the frontiers of the Empire (thus away from the city)

Principate

Period where the Emperor of Rome is the Princeps (first man of the senate)

Augustan Settlement (27 BC)

Agreement between Senate and Octavian which granted him extraordinary powers:

• Tribune power for life (veto power)

• Imperium maius (imperium greater than any other)

• Titles of Augustus, Imperator, and Princeps

Legates

Leaders of legions under Augustus who served as provincial governors under Augustus

Frontiers

The Euphrates River to the Sahara Desert.

• 16 AD: Roman control extends to Danube

• 9 AD: Battle of Teutoberg Forest drives Romans out of Germania

• 116 AD: Brittania, Mauritania, and Dacia added, little change otherwise

Tiberius (14-37 AD)

Princeps of Rome succeeding Augustus:

• Stepson of Augustus, not his first, second, or third choice

• Military commander who lacked Augustus political sense

• Took on all of Augustus’s titles except Imperator

Praetorian Guard

Protectors of the Emperor and Rome who remained stationed near the city even as the legions moved out to the frontiers

• Sejanus effort to camp 5,000 of them outside Rome led to his execution for treason

Donatives

Bonuses given to Roman soldiers in addition to their annual pay which contributed to troop loyalty to the Emperor

Tacitus

Taxation

Primary source of Imperial revenue

• Capitalis: Poll

• Soli: Land

• Portoria: Customs

• Slave

• 5% inheritance

Decurions

Local Town councillors under the Empire

Trianomina

Three Names for an individual

• The second name reflects the individual who granted the name

• eg. L. Mestrius Plutarchus

Bureaucracy

Limited under the Principate

• 1 Roman Imperial Official for every 400,000 people

Equestrian Order

• Early Republic: An individual wealthy enough to own a horse

• Late Republic: 400,000 sesterces

• Empire: Distinct social status with its own cursus honorum

  • Serve in officer corps, financial administration, and imperial ministers

Year of the Four Emperors

69 AD

• Follows Nero’s suicide in 68

• Galba marches on Rome

• Otho and Vitellius briefly acclaimed as Emperor

• Vespasian’s forces ultimately prevail

Septimius Severus (193-211 AD)

Took power following an “auctioning off” of the empire after Comodus, Pertinax, and Didius Julianus all rise and fall in rapid succession. Victorious in civil war and founder of a new dynasty

Severan Dynasty (193-235)

• Septimius Severus succeeded by a series of teenage emperors

• Relations between Princeps and Senate breaks down

• Soldiers become basis of rule leading to rapid inflation

• Severan women become prominent due to the young ages of their sons

Julia Mammaea

Known as Augusta and held tremendous power as her son, Severus Alexander, was only 13 years old

Severus Alexander

13 year old emperor who was assassinated by his soldiers in 235, leading to the rise of Thrax

Maximius Thrax

Equestrian solider who is elevated to emperor by soldiers following assassination of Severus Alexander

Third-Century Crisis

20 Emperors in 50 years:

• Debasement of coinage and rapid inflation

• Constant civil wars with legions determining power

• Constant threats from Germanic tribes

• Depopulation of Italy while Africa and Syria rise to prominence

• Parts of Empire temporality splinter off (i.e. Gallic Empire)

• Lack of authority in Emperors

• Persecution of Christians

• Aurelian honors Sol Invictus

Soldier-Emperors

Soldiers with no civilian experience who rose to the Imperial throne

• E.g. Thrax and Diocletian

Germanic Tribes

Posed a constant threat to Roman stability during the Third Century Crisis

Syncretism

Flexibility of Greco-Roman religion allowed for the adoption of new gods and beliefs from other tribes under the Roman umbrella, contributing to the Pax Romana

Imperial Cult

State religion dedicated to the service of Roma and Augustus

• Sacrifices must be offered to the gods on the Emperor’s behalf

• Chief priests in local communities are highly prestigious

• Maintain a balance between gods and empire

Decius (249-251)

Ordered sacrifices on emperor’s behalf and demanded proof (Pax Decorum). This lead to a widespread persecution of Christians

Diocletian (284-305)

Soldier-emperor who established the Tetrarchy and doubled the number of provinces

Tetrarchy

• 2 Augusti (co-emperors each responsible for half the empire)

• 2 Caesars (pre-appointed successors)

Dominate

System established by Diocletian, replacing the Principate, in which the Emperor becomes the Dominus Noster (our lord) and thus much more restricted from the people. Massive increase in bureaucracy followed

Constantine

Ends the Tetrarchy and claims all of Rome. Adopts Christianity and founds Constantinople

Barbarians

Increasingly made up the Roman Army, including its highest generals, as a result of Diocletians expensive reforms. Contributed to the decline of the Roman Empire

Aurelian Walls

Honestiores and Humiliores

Nobles v.s Peasants