The Modern Period (1900-present)

What was a conscientious objector?

People who refused to take part in a war or conflict for moral reasons

What were the reasons someone might object to being conscripted?

They were against war (pacifists), political objectors, they didn’t consider the government to be their enemy, they felt it was a war between the ruling classes, some were religious and didn’t fight as it was against their religion

What is an absolutist?

They were opposed to conscription as well as war, upholders of civil liberty and the freedom of the individual values. They believed that any alternative service supported the war and supported the immoral practice of conscription as well

What is an alternativst?

They were prepared to undertake alternative civillian work not under any military control

What was a non combatant?

They were prepared to accept call up into the army, but not be trained to use weapons or have anything to do with them at all. They often became stretcher bearers or medics

What was the public attitude towards conscientious objectors in WW1?

Most people supported the war and attitudes towards COs was hostile, they were frequently accused of cowardice and some were physically attacked. They were rejected from society, and treated and seen as criminals. In the eyes of the country they failed to contribute and make a difference, and were seen as traitors. Men were given white feathers this was to make them feel like cowards

How did the government treat conscientious objectors at tribunals and in their propaganda in WW1?

COs had to appear before a tribunal to state their case. Tribunals were sometimes made up of retired soldiers and other unsympathetic individuals. Some COs were given alternative work supporting the war effort at home, and some took non fighting roles such as driving ambulances. Over 6000 COs refused to accept the decision of the tribunal and were put in prison where they faced solitary confinement, hard labour and a long sentence. By the end of the war 73 COs died as a result of their treatment and until 1926 they were unable to vote. They were ridiculed by the propaganda

How did government treatment of COs change in WW2?

Conscription was reintroduced in 1939 and 59,162 people registered as COs. Tribunals were still held but were no longer allowed to include ex soldiers. There was more effort to give COs alternative work such as farming, or in industries like munitions to help with the war effort. They were only sent to prison as a last resort

Disease public treatment of COs change in WW2?

The public was slower to change their attitudes. Many COs lost their jobs and they were often criticised in the newspapers and many were sacked from their jobs. COs were once again openly accused of cowardice and treason, while some were attacked in the street

What is the difference between the items smuggled in the 18th century and the 20th century?

18th - brandy, tea, cloth

20th - tobacco, alcohol, people, drugs, animal

What is the difference between the reasons for smuggling in the 18th century and the 20th century?

18th - to avoid paying import taxes (duties), big profits could be made and public demand for goods at cheaper prices

20th - avoid paying taxes on the goods, sell them and profit and public demand for items at cheaper prices

What is the difference between the methods used by smugglers in the 18th century and the 20th century?

18th - fast sailing ships brought in goods from Europe and moved from coastal areas to town for distribution

20th - transport and swallowing sealed packages

What are old crimes that continued into the 20th century?

-murder

-theft, burglary

-Smuggling

-Terrorism - treason

What are old crimes in a new form that continued into the 10th century?

Shoplifting- became established in the second half of the century when shops placed goods on display

What were new crimes in the 20th century?

-Hate crimes: always existed but was classified as a crime in 2007

-Car crimes: was a new invention in 1900

-Computer crime: due to new technology

-Domestic abuse became a crime

-Drug offenses

When was pointless hard work (crank, treadmil) in prison abolished?

1902

How much does keeping a person in prison cost?

£40,000

What changes were made to prisons in 1922?

-Solitary confinement ended

-Broad arrows on convicts’ uniforms changed as was the ‘convict crop’ (shaved head)

-Diet, heating and conditions in cells improved

-Visits allowed

-Teachers employed in prisons to help inmates have a better chance of finding work when released

Why were there changes in prisons in 1922?

-fear of crime had declined so government under less pressure to make prisons harsh

-A belief that certainty of arrest rather than prison was the real deterrent. The belief that criminals inherited their criminal habits was declining

-Instead many thought that poverty or a criminal environment caused crimes. This raised hopes that education and better treatment in prison might reform inmates

When was the first open prison built?

-First open prison built in 1933 - rules more relaxed and prisoners allowed to leave the grounds in order to work

-Idea was to help prepare inmates for ordinary life in the community

What were prisons like after 1947?

-Average length of sentences increased. Prisoners locked away for longer as government seek to be ‘tough on crime’

-Increased chance of a prison sentence for crimes such as sexual, violent or drug related

-Number of people on remand (awaiting trial in prison) increased

Why were the changes to prisons after 1947 made?

-Fear of crime increased after the mid 20th century

-Prison overcrowding peaked in 1980s and prisons overcrowded since 1994

-Reduced budgets and difficulty in recruiting have led to fewer staff looking after more prisoners

-Increase in serious assaults in prison

-Problems with deaths in custody

-Decline in purposeful activity such as work or education

-In 2014 Ofsted judged over half of prisons as inadequate or requiring improvement for learning and skills

What non custodial alternatives have governments tried?

-Electronic tags-they have to be home at a certain time. If they break their curfew, they could be sent back to prison. It tracks their location and police can restrict movement - 1990s

-1907-probation introduced. The offender had to report once a week to the police and regularly meet with a probation officer

-1914-offenders have longer to pay fines

-1962-Birching abolished. It was replaced with fines or prison

-1967-parole introduced. Prisoners didn’t have to serve their whole sentence if they behaved well

-1972 - community service introduced. Offenders had to do between 40 and 300 hours of unpaid work in the community

Why did the government explore non custodial alternatives to prisons?

-High rates of recidivism (prisoners reoffending) after released

-Younger prisoners can learn from other prisoners or develop drug-taking which could result in crime when released

-Prison very expensive as inmates have to be housed and fed, staff paid and some prisoners’ families could need financial support

-Prison doesn’t deal with the social or personal problems that caused people to commit crimes, when released, prisoners return to the environment that led them to commit crimes

When were borstals introduced and how were they used?

-Set up in Kent in 1902

-Prisons for boys under 18

-Purpose was to keep young offenders away from harderned criminals

-Run like strict boarding schools with house competitions and character building sport

-Usual sentences were from 6 months to 2 years

What was the Prevention of Crime Act and when was it introduced?

-1908

-Created a national system of borstals that emphasised education. The day was structured and disciplined and inmates took part in physical exercise and education and work programmes that focused on learning practical skills

When were approved schools set up and what were they?

-1932

-Set up for offenders under 15. They were similar to borstals and offered training in skills such as bricklaying

When were attendance centres introduced and what were they?

-1948

-ran compulsory daily or weekly sessions for offenders aged 10-21. They covered basic literacy and numeracy; life skills such as filling in job applications and money management and cooking

When and why were approved schools closed?

-1959 they were gradually closed

-Due to rioting, large numbers of children abosconding and public criticism after the riots

When were borstals abolished and why?

-1982 because:

-60% of those released from borstals re-offended and there was an increase in youth crime

-Public opinion moved towards harsher punishments

-Government introduced Youth Detention Centres. Milliary drill and discipline were intended to provide deterance

-However this system failed to deter and re-offending rates increased

How do youth courts work?

Youth courts work with agencies, such as the police, school, social workers and probation officers. The emphasis is on preventing a life of crime

How do attendance centres work today?

-They deal with offenders aged 18-24

-encourage an understanding of the impact of their crimes on the community, they also run drug, alcohol and sexual awareness sessions

-they are the offenders last chance, if they commit further offences, they are locked up in a Young Offerders Institution

How have fines for young offenders changed?

Parents can be fined

How is custody used for young offenders?

-Used as a last resort

-Offenders under the age of 18 can be held in a secure children's home, a secure training centre or a youth offenders institution. Youth offenders institutions operate many of the same rules and prisons

How are non custodial methods used on young offenders?

Methods such as tagging and curfews are used to monitor offenders’ movement and courts can impose certain activities, such as counselling

When was the Homicide Act introduced and what did it state?

-1957

-It restricted the death penalty to the most serious cases of murder (capital murders) these included committed two murders on different occasions, killing someone by shooting or explosion, killing someone whilst resisting arrest and killing a prison officer or a police officer

-Made allowances for defendants suffering from diminished responsibility or who had been abused by the person they had murdered

How many execution were there a year in 1957?

Around 4 in Britain

When was the Murder Act introduced and what did it state?

-1965

-Death penalty was suspended and this was made permanent in 1969. The home secretary at the time was Roy Jenkins (a labour politician) who strongly believed the death should end, and his influence is often seen as playing a key role in this change in the law

When was the death penalty formally ended?

1999 - the Home Secretary signed the 6th protocol of European Convention on Human Rights

How many people were executed per year in the 1950s?

Around 15 people

How did the treatment of children in the law change?

Children were increasingly shown more tolerance in the law. It was recognised that children didn't have the same understanding of their actions as adults so they shouldn't be punished as severely.

-In 1908, the Children's Act said that under 16s could no longer be sentenced to death. In 1933, the age was increased to 18

What were the government's opinion on ending the death penalty?

In parliament, opinions about the death penalty were strongly divided. The House of Commons passed bills abolishing the death penalty in 1948 and 1956 but these were blocked by the House of Lords. It was abolished in 1965

What happened in Derek Bentley's case?

Nov 1952, Bentley along with his 16 year old companion Chris Craig were caught burgling a warehouse in London. While they were on the roof, Detective Sergeant Fairfax climbed up and arrested Bentley. According to the police, Fairfax asked Chris Craig to hand over the gun, and Bently shouted ‘Let him have it, Chris’. Craig fired at Fairfax, injuring him on the shoulder. Craig also shot and killed PC Sidney Miles

Bentley and Craig were both charged with murder under a charge of joint enterprise. Bentley faced the death penalty but Chris Craig didn’t as he was under 18. There was disagreements over what ‘let him have it’ meant, some thought it meant let him have the gun but some said it meant fire at him

Bentley was hanged on 28 Jan 1953

Why was Derek Bentley's case a miscarriage of justice?

-He had severe learning difficulties

-Suffered from epilepsy

-He didn’t shoot the police officer

-He had a sheath knife and knuckle duster in his pocket but didn’t use them to escape

-Argued that he didn’t say ‘let him have it’ and even if he did say it, it was argued that he could have meant hand over the gun

-He was pardoned in 1998

What happened in Timothy Evans's case?

-Timothy Evans was hanged in 1950 and posthumously pardoned in 1966

-Evans and his wife were lodgers in the house of John Christie

-Evans's wife was pregnant and Christie offered to perform an abortion (abortion was illegal) Christie killed her and told Evans the abortion failed

-Evans felt guilty and confessed

Why was Timothy Evans's case a miscarriage of justice?

-Christie was a serial killer who Evans wife

-3 years later Christie was convicted of 8 other murders

-Evans story was untrue, he changed it several times

What happened in Ruth Ellis's case?

-She was found guilty of shooting her lover David Blakely in a crime of passion

-Hanged in July 1955

Why was Ruth Ellis's case a miscarriage of justice?

It was an abusive relationship and Blakely often beat Ellis

What changes happened in attitudes in society towards the dealth penalty what influenced these changes?

-After WW2 there was a growing feeling that execution was unchristian and barbaric

-Execution seemed wrong and was associated with Hitler

-1948- United Nations issued its Declaration of Human Rights. Stated that ‘everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person’ and ‘no one shall be subjected to torture’

-Impact of WW2 - 6 mil lives lost, holocaust- life viewed as precious

Why did changes in attitudes in society lead to the abolishing to the death penalty?

-Many argued that other European countries had abolished capital punishment without a noticeable increase in crime

-Sometimes the wrong person was executed

-Most murders acted on spur of the moment so capital punishment didn’t deter

-Execution was against the teachings of religions and the Christian idea of forgiveness and the sanctity of life

-Meant there was more pressure on the government because more people began to disagree with the death penalty

What changes to legislation did the government make?

-In 1908, the Children's Act said that under 16s could no longer be sentenced to death, in 1933 it was increased to 18

-1957 the Homicide Act restricted the death penalty to the most serious cases of murder

-1905 the Murder Act - death penalty for murder was suspended and this was made permanent in 1969

Why did changes to legislation lead to the abolishing of the death penalty?

-The law gradually changed to remove the death penalty

-The government became more focused on reform

How has numbers and organisation changed in the police force from 1900 to today?

1900:

-Around 200 local police forces - all run differently

-Little cooperation between forces

-42,000 officers

Today:

-March 2015, total number was 126,818 spread across 43 local forces in England and Wales

How has training and recruitment changed in the police force from 1900 to today?

1900:

-Miliary drill = the only training given

-All police officers were male

-Low quality and poorly paid recruits

Today:

-Since 1947 new recruits have undertaken 14 weeks of basic training at National Police Training College

-March 2015 - 28% of police are women, women recruited since 1920s

-Local forces have own specialists to continue training

How has transport changed in the police force from 1900 to today?

1900:

-Officers walked a ‘beat’ of up to 20 miles a day

Today:

-Vehicles include cars, motorbikes, helicopters, foot or bicycles

-1930s - police cars common

-1909 - bicycles

How has equipment changed in the police force from 1900 to today?

1900:

-Whistle to call for help

-Wooden truncheon

-Pistols locked up at police station for emergencies

Today:

-Two way radios for instant communication (1930s)

-Batons, truncheons, pepper spray, CS gas, tasers, firearms

How have crime detection tools changed in the police force from 1900 to today?

1900:

-Eyes and ears of the police officer

-Witness statements

Today:

-Fingerprints, chemical analysis of blood samples, DNA samples

-1901 - Fingerprint Branch set up at Metropolitan Police

-Photography used to record crime scenes

-Improved microscopes made it possible to find small quantities of blood at a crime scene to use as evidence

How has record keeping changed in the police force from 1900 to today?

1900:

-Local record keeping was poor

-No national record of criminals

Today:

-Since 1974, the Police National Computer collected together several databases including fingerprints, motor vehicles and missing person details

-The National Automatic Fingerprint Identification system and National DNA Database set up to share information in 1995

How have main duties changed in the police force from 1900 to today?

1900:

-Dealing with crimes, especially petty theft

-Dealing with drunkenness

Today:

-Deal increasingly in non crime related incidents including anti-social behaviour, drunkenness, missing people and incidents linked to mental health when someone could be at risk

-Also keep order at demonstrations, football matches, and other large gatherings

What developments in science and technology have helped the police force?

-1901: Fingerprint Branch set up at Met. Police headquarters at New Scotland Yard

-1901: the fact that there are different blood types was discovered. Police can use blood samples from crime scenes to identify criminals

-1909: police bicycles introduced

-1930s: police cars common + two way radios in cars for quick communication

-1937: first widespread use of police phone box (to save officers on beat having to return to the station to report information) + 999 emergency telephone number

-1960s: Met Police first uses computers to process payroll and pensions

-1965: Tear gas allowed to be used by police to break up riots

-1967: Breathalysers (test blood alcohol levels)

-1969: Personal two way radios used. Attached to uniform

-1970s: Development of CCTV

-1974: Police National Computer launched, capable of holding records of 25 million individuals

-1988: First convicted murder based on the use of DNA samples

-1992: Speed cameras introduced

-1995: National Automatic Fingerprint Identification System and National DNA Database (2015 - held records of 5.7 million individuals’ DNA profiles) set up to share information that could be used to identify criminals

-1996: CS Gas (pepper spray) was allowed

How have the police become more specialised to tackle crimes with bombs?

Metropolitan Police Bomb Squad set up in 1971, when there was increasing number of terrorist attacks by the IRA and other groups

How have the police become more specialised to tackle crimes in tech?

National Hi-tech Crime Unit, set up in 2001 to tackle online crimes including hacking, credit card fraud and virus attacks

How have the police become more specialised to tackle fraud crimes?

-First specialised Fraud Squad set up in London in 1946, to tackle crime in business and the stock market. It evolved to tackle other high-value crimes like art theft.

-Today known as the Specialist, Organised and Economic Crime Command

How have the police become more specialised to tackle drug crime?

Drug crime tackled by:

-Disrupting criminal activity and organisations

-Monitoring known drug users

-Preventing the further spread of drug use

National Crime Agency, set up in 2013, tackles drug-trafficking into the UK and large-scale drug production in the UK

All local police forces have special squads to deal with drug dealers in their areas. These squads try to disrupt the trade with raids on buildings where dealers store to supply drugs

How have the police’s use of dog handling units developed?

-The first specially trained police dogs were Labradors and were used in south London, in 1938, to accompany police officers on the beat

-Specialist dog section was established within the Met police in 1946. By 1950s, most police forces had dog units

-Today they are trained to:

• Sniff out drugs

• Find explosives

• Track and catch criminals

• Search for missing people

• Strengthen the police presence at major events

How have the police become more focused on crime prevention?

-Work with schools to educate young people about avoiding risks that can lead to them becoming victims of crime, giving people advice on making their homes more secure from burglary, and involvement with neighbourhood watch schemes

-Police forces can make risk and threat assessments - predicting where crime might occur, and profiling types of people who might be more likely to commit crime - so they can plan how to prevent and tackle crime

-Police Community Support Officers work on stopping anti-social behaviour and reduced fear of crime . They can confiscate alcohol and remove abandoned vehicles. Their work is intended to help cut down on the factors that often lead to crime

What is the Special Branch?

A unit within each police force to tackle threats to national security and terrorism. The work with MI5, the security service, to detect and prevent terrorists

When was Neighbourhood Watch set up?

-Set up in 1982

-Nationalised in 2007

What was the purpose of Neighbourhood Watch?

Local committee of people who raise awareness about crime and encourage neighbours to keep an eye on each others’ property.

Aims included:

-Helping the police prevent crime, by encouraging local vigilance

-Reducing fear of crime by increasing community involvement

-Reporting crime trends to the police

How did Neighbourhood Watch increase in the 1980s?

In the early 1980s, the number of local Neighbourhood Watches rose from 1,000 to 29,000, but there was a lot of controversy over whether this initiative was effective in preventing crime

When was homosexuality decriminalised?

1967, the Sexual Offenders Act decriminalised homosexuality for men aged over 21

What was the Criminal Justice Act?

It came into force in 2005 and gave courts new powers to issue more severe sentences for hate crimes

What is a hate crime?

A crime motivated by prejudice against the victim’s race, gender, disability or sexual orientation

What was the Race Relations Act?

In 1968, the Race Relations Act made it illegal to refuse jobs, housing, or public services to anyone on the basis of their race, ethnic background or country of origin

In 2006, the law was extended to define spreading racial or religious hatred as a crime in the Racial and Religious Hatred Act

What laws were passed to help reduce domestic violence?

-Domestic Violence Act - passed in 1976. It gave victims the right to ask for an injunction (an order issued by a court to forbid a particular action or behaviour, can include instructions to stay away from a person or place) against a violent partner

-1991: Law recognises rape within marriage as a crime

-2014: the law changed to make controlling and coercive behaviour towards a partner a crime

What laws were changed regarding abortion?

-1967 Abortion Act legalised abortion if: the child was going to have serious disabilities or if the mother was at risk of serious physical or mental harm if the pregnancy continued - this had to be agreed by two doctors independently (before terminating a pregnancy was illegal with a few exceptions for strict medical reasons, e.g. if the mother might die as a result of the pregnancy)

-1968, the legal limit for abortion was 28 weeks

What is an example of a social crime?

copyright

What laws were introduced regarding driving offences?

-Driving a horse-drawn coach while drunk first became illegal in 1872

-Became illegal to drive a car while drunk in 1925

-1967 - new law set a maximum limit for the amount of alcohol a person could have in their bloodstream and legally drive

What was the Misuse of Drugs Act?

-Passed in 1971

-Made drugs illegal

What are some new crimes?

-Terrorism (the use of violence, fear and intimidation to publicise a political cause). The Terrorism Act 2000 defines terrorism and establishes the powers for law enforcement. In the 1970s and 80s the best-known group was the IRA (Irish Republican Army), which used violence to campaign for Irish nationalism. In recent years, groups have included Al-Qaeda and Isis

-People-trafficking (people from poorer countries being brought to the UK and being forced to work for very low or no wages). Modern Slavery Act 2015

-Cybercrime

-Fraud (impersonating other people or businesses to make money illegally)

-Copyright theft (copyright is the right or company to be recognised. It is committed when people make available illegal downloads of music, computer games, films and television shows

-Extortion (making someone pay money by using threats or blackmail)