Working memory

learn new cards weekly, all MCAT FL, UWorld, AAMC Qs corrections

Mechanical Advantage (MA)

F_out/F_in = d_i/d_o

ducts

some secretory cells form hollow tubes ducts for their secretions to flow into.

exocrine glands

glands whose secretions release onto exterio body surface ex skin or inner lung surface

ex. tears secreted on eyes surface from lacrimal glands

bile secreted from liver [exocrine gland] into bile duct → released into duodenum [dig tract communicate w exterior of body]

fermentatoni

lactate DH catalyze pyruvate→[H]→lactate

electrons needed provided by [O] of NADH→ NAD+

occurs in absence of mitochondria

mixed inhibitors

• bind free enzymes AND ES complex → decrease Vmax

• effects on Km dep on affinity for free enzymes or ES complexes:

  • greater than affinity free enzymes: like comp inhibitors → increase Km

  • greater affinity for ES complex: like uncomp inhibitors → Km

  • =affinity: noncomp inhibition and no effect Km

At high substrate concentrations ([S] >> K_M), the active sites of enzymes are completely saturated with substrate, and adding more substrate does not increase the reaction rate.  Adding more enzyme increases the number of active sites, and therefore increases the reaction velocity.  The maximum velocity at any enzyme concentration is calculated as V_max = k_cat × [E_tot].

When blood pressure is low, vasoconstriction reduces blood vessel diameter, causing an increase in blood pressure to restore homeostasis.

Pressure =

Force/Area = N/m²

sociology major theoretical approaches

macro-soc: F, CT

micro-soc: SC, SI, SE

macro- or micro-soc: Feminist

functionalism

structures of society work together to maintain order + stability (ie societal balance)

macrosoc

conflict theory

macrosoc

tension arises due to unequal distribution of resources (wealth, power)

symbolic interactionism

societies make ideas + interpret meaning of reality based on social exchange

microsoc

social constructionism

social interactions establish "reality" through the creation of social constructs (eg, race), which have meaning only because individuals in society have agreed on that meaning.

microsoc

rational choice/social exchange

indiv decisions (rational choice) + interactions (social exchange) attempt to maximize gain + minimize cost

microsoc

feminist theory

variety of theories explain gender inequality (ex men possess more power than women)

macro- or micro-soc

Schizophrenia

+ symptoms (excess) hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech/ehavior

- symptoms (apathy, emotional flattening, social withdrawal, lack speech, anhedonia(no feel pleasure)

neuroleptic or atypical antipsychotics → generally effective in ↓+symptoms

• neuroleptics risk side effects (sedation, psychomotor disturbances).

specific phobia

excessive irrational fear of specific situations ex flying or animal/objects ex spiders

personality disorders

deviations from expected behaviors → distress, impaired fxn

stable over time and across environments and cause significant distress or impairment of functioning.

cluster A

odd/eccentric

paranoid

schizoid

schizotypical

Parkinson disease

Dopamine- movement, reward, pleasure, motivation, emotion regulation. 

• loss of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra → motor symptoms ex resting tremors (shaky hands), muscle rigidity, and shuffling gait.

cluster B personality disorders

BHAND

borderline

histrionic

antisocial

narcissistic

dramatic/errational

cluster C (aaliyan’s cluster)

AADO

anxious

avoidant

dependent

obsessive-compulsive

genetic code is a degen

1+ codon code for same amino acid bc 3rd position of mRNA codon and tRNA anticodon undergo nontraditional base pairingc→ 1 tRNA mol bind different codons.

Kinases

catalyze transfer of phosphate groups from ATP or GTP to proteins

phosphatases

catalyze removal of phosphate groups via hydrolysis.

Eukaryotes

80S ribosomes = 60S large subunit and 40S small subunit.

Prokaryotes .

70S ribosomes = 50S large subunit and 30S small subunit

lymph node

lymph filtration
pathogen destruction by phagocytic cells

immune re by lymphocytes

thymus

t cell maturation site

spleen

blood filtration

destroys pathogen and damaged RBCs by phagocytic cells

immune re by lymphocytes

loosely packed euchromatin

high histone acetylation

low DNA methylation

more accesible to transcription machinery → gene expression

heterochromatin

highly condensed/packed DNA

high DNA methylation

low histone acetylation

odds ratio

OR = 1: no difference between groups.

OR > 1: the event is more likely in the first group.

OR < 1: the event is less likely in the first group. narrower CI means a more precise estimate; a wider CI means less precision.

Confidence Intervals

• 95% CI includes 1.0→ not statistically significant for odds ratio

• 1.0 = “no effect”

• CI does not include 1.0→ statistically significant

MHC I

expressed on all nucleated cells

present normal “self” antigens

cells infected by intracellular pathogens present foreign antigens on MHC I → marks infected cell for destruction

MHC II

expressed only on surface of antigen-presenting cells (macrophage, dendritic cells, B cells)

antigen presentation w MHC II needed to active T cells

epitope

part of antigen mol that antibody attaches to

MHC

collection genes coding for glycoproteins expressed on surface of all nucleated cells.

CTLs or cytotoxic T lymphocytes bind

foreign antigens presented by cell surface antigen-presenting proteins called MHC proteins. upon binding foreign antigens → CTLs release cytotoxins that induce apoptosis in infected cells.

clonal selection

process where B or T cell clones responsive to antigen are stimulated to replicate and greatly increase in number in contrast to non-responsive B or T cells, which do not increase number.

clonal selection requires

• A variety of B and T cell clones, each consisting of one or a few cells with the same genotype but with slight variations in antigen receptors.  This variation increases the likelihood that one or more of the clones will be able to respond to a specific pathogen.

• Antigen receptors for a specific pathogen.  At least one of the B or T cells must possess a receptor that recognizes (ie, binds) an antigen from the pathogen.

• Replication of antigen-responsive clones.  Antigen recognition stimulates replication of the responsive clone(s).  Because these responsive clones are stimulated to replicate but clones unresponsive to the pathogen are not, the responsive clones represent a much greater proportion of the total B or T cell population.

triacylglycerols

lipid class = energy storage lipids.

catabolized to make ATP power many cellular processes.

cholesterol

hydrophilic hydroxyl grp attached to 4 fused rings

deamination of cytosine produces ….

Uracil (carbonyl)

esterification of cholesterol

removes hydrophilic -OH group and replaces it with hydrophobic acyl tail. 

amphipathic cholesterol → hydrophobic cholesteryl ester → movement of ester from membrane surface to hydrophobic core of lipoprotein particle.

Normal-phase thin-layer chromatography

separates molecules based on polarity. 

Rf = distance compound/distance solvent

sationary = polar ex silica

mobile phase = mostly nonpolar ex hexanes, ethyl acetate

Base excision repair (BER)

DNA damage that does not distort the double helix.

Examples: Base oxidation, deamination, or alkylation.

Nucleotide excision repair (NER)

DNA damage that is extensive or bulky.

Example: Thymine dimers

The mismatch repair system (MMR) can be activated at any point during the cell cycle. (True or False)

False. The mismatch repair system can be activated only when a base pair mismatch is detected immediately after DNA replication.

DNA mismatch repair (MMR) enzymes must have [endonuclease/exonuclease] activity. (Choose one option)

DNA mismatch repair (MMR) enzymes must have endonuclease activity.

 

 

Only endonucleases can cleave phosphodiester bonds within an existing DNA strand.

Plasma

is the liquid portion of blood.  It is made up of water, electrolytes, gases, hormones, nutrients, metabolic waste, and PROTEINS.