Unit 2: APGOV

Enumerated/Expressed/Formal Powers

Powers specifically listed in Article 1, Section 8 of the Constitution (e.g., taxing, declaring war, naturalization).

Implied Powers

Powers not explicitly stated but suggested by the "Necessary and Proper" clause to address modern issues.

Bicameral Legislature

A two-house legislature (House and Senate) that must both pass a bill for it to reach the President.

House of Representatives

The lower house consisting of 435 members; representation is based on state population.

Senate

The upper house consisting of 100 members (2 per state) who represent the entire state.

Speaker of the House

The top leader of the House, elected by the majority party.

Majority/Minority Leaders

Officials who direct debate and guide party policy goals in both houses.

Whips

Party leaders responsible for rendering party discipline and ensuring members vote with the party.

President of the Senate

The Vice President of the US; holds a non-voting tie-breaker role.

President Pro-Tempore

Presides over the Senate when the Vice President is absent.

Senate Majority Leader

The most powerful position in the Senate; sets the legislative agenda and determines which bills reach debate.

Standing Committees

Permanent subject-matter committees (e.g., House Judiciary or Senate Budget).

House Rules Committee

The committee that determines the rules for debate and amendments for a bill in the House.

Joint Committee

A committee containing members from both the House and Senate (e.g., Library of Congress).

Select Committee

A temporary committee created for a specific purpose (e.g., Watergate investigation).

Conference Committee

A temporary joint committee formed to resolve differences when the House and Senate pass different versions of the same bill.

Logrolling

An agreement or compromise between lawmakers to support each other's bills.

Pork Barrel Legislation

Spending that directs federal money to projects benefiting a specific legislator's home district.

Mandatory Spending

Government spending required by law that must be paid (e.g., Social Security).

Discretionary Spending

Money left over after mandatory spending that Congress can choose how to allocate (e.g., Defense).

Filibuster

A tactic used in the Senate to stall or kill a bill by speaking for an extended period.

Cloture

A procedure requiring 60 votes in the Senate to end a filibuster and move to a vote.

Divided Government

When one party controls the White House while another party controls one or both houses of Congress.

Constituents

The people living in a district or state represented by an elected official.

Incumbent Advantage

The electoral benefit officeholders have over challengers, including name recognition and easier fundraising.

Party Polarization

The increasing ideological gap between political parties.

Trustee Model

Representation model where legislators use their own best judgment to make decisions.

Delegate Model

Representation model where legislators vote exactly how their constituents want, even if it goes against their own judgment.

Politico Model

A blend of the trustee and delegate models; balancing personal judgment with constituent views.

Redistricting/Gerrymandering

The process of drawing legislative district boundaries every 10 years to favor one party or group.

Baker v. Carr (1962)

Established the "one person, one vote" principle; ruled that redistricting issues are justiciable under the 14th Amendment.

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

Ruled that racial gerrymandering is unconstitutional based on the 14th Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause.

Formal/Enumerated Powers (Executive)

Explicitly granted to the President by the Constitution (e.g., Veto, appointments, 2nd Amendment power).

Informal Powers (Executive)

Powers developed through practice not listed in the constitution (e.g., executive orders, persuasion of public).

Executive Orders

Presidential directives that have the force of law without Congressional approval.

Federalist No. 70

Hamilton’s argument for a "unitary single executive" (one president) for energy and accountability.

Signing Statements

Written comments issued when signing a bill, explaining interpretation or enforcement.

Executive Agreements

International agreements not requiring Senate ratification (unlike treaties).

Bully Pulpit

Using the office's visibility to persuade the public and shape the national agenda.

Cabinet

Group of advisors consisting of the heads of executive departments.

Federalist No. 78

Hamilton’s argument for life tenure for judges and judicial review.

Life Tenure

Supreme Court justices serve for life to maintain independence from politics.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Established Judicial Review (declaring laws unconstitutional).

Stare Decisis

The principle of following legal precedent ("let the decision stand").

Judicial Activism

Court decides policy by looking at broad effects on society; favors correcting social wrongs.

Judicial Restraint

Philosophy of deferring to the elected branches of government.

Appellate Jurisdiction

Power of a higher court to review decisions of lower courts.

Bureaucracy

System of non-elected officials and departments that carry out government functions; writes and enforces legislation.

Cabinet Secretaries

The highest level of bureaucratic leadership.

Commissions

Independent regulatory agencies created with a specific purpose (e.g., FEC, SEC).

Government Corporations

Business-like agencies (e.g., Postal Service).

Iron Triangles

Stable relationship between a bureaucratic agency, a congressional committee, and an interest group to create policies.

Discretionary Authority

Power of agencies to choose how to apply and enforce laws.

Rule-Making Authority

Power of agencies to create detailed rules to give force to laws.

Regulations

The actual rules produced via rule-making authority.

Implementation

How bureaucracies carry out the goals of a legal mandate.

Issue Networks

Loose, shifting networks of various actors (experts, media, etc.) involved in a policy issue.

Merit System

Hiring based on ability and performance.

Patronage

Hiring based on political loyalty.

Congressional Oversight

Power of Congress to review/monitor the executive branch and "advise and consent" on appointments.