new advent study

instinctu divinitatis

Latin phrase on the Arch of Constantine meaning "by divine inspiration." Deliberately vague — doesn't name any god. Both pagans and Christians could read it as their own god. Classic example of Constantine's political ambiguity.

Battle of Milvian Bridge (312 CE)

Constantine defeated rival Maxentius. He reportedly saw the Chi-Rho symbol and "In Hoc Signo Vinces" (In this sign, conquer). Won and credited the Christian God — changed the direction of Roman religious history.

Chi-Rho / Christogram

The first two Greek letters of "Christ" (X and P overlapped). Constantine had soldiers paint this on shields before Milvian Bridge. One of the first widely used Christian symbols.

Edict of Milan (313 CE)

Issued by Constantine and Licinius. Granted full religious toleration to ALL religions — did NOT make Christianity the state religion. Returned confiscated Church property and funded basilica construction.

Constantine vs. Theodosius

Constantine made Christianity legal and protected (313). Theodosius made it the ONLY legal religion and banned everything else (380–391). Constantine opened the door — Theodosius slammed all other doors shut.

Pontifex Maximus

Rome's chief pagan priest. Constantine kept this title his entire reign while supporting Christianity — proof he never fully committed. Only baptized on his deathbed.

Edict of Thessalonica (380 CE)

Issued by Emperor Theodosius. Made Nicene Christianity the ONLY legal religion of the Roman Empire. Not just tolerated — legally required. All other practices banned.

Theodosius decrees (391 CE)

Banned all pagan sacrifices and temple visits. Temples destroyed (Serapeum, Alexandria). Imperial officials forced to enforce the laws. By 415, pagans barred from government posts.

Ambrose of Milan

Bishop of Milan (from 374 CE). Came from a senatorial family. After the Thessalonica Massacre (390), he excommunicated Emperor Theodosius — denying him communion for 8 months until he did public penance. His power was MORAL, not legal. Patron saint of Milan. Set the precedent for Church authority over rulers.

Thessalonica Massacre (390 CE)

Theodosius ordered ~7,000 civilians killed in the hippodrome as collective punishment for a riot that killed Roman commander Butheric. Seen as unjust — disproportionate violence against innocent people. Triggered Ambrose's excommunication.

Church vs. State — Ambrose's point

Two types of authority clashed: Church (moral/spiritual) vs. State (political/imperial). Ambrose showed that even an emperor must answer to God. No law forced this — pure moral authority. First time political loyalty and moral duty were separated.

Council of Nicaea (325 CE)

First worldwide Church council, called by Constantine. Settled the Arian controversy. Condemned Arianism, wrote the Nicene Creed, affirmed homoousios. About 300 bishops attended.

Homoousios

Greek: "same substance." Used in the Nicene Creed to say Christ and God the Father are FULLY equal and identical in divine nature — not one lesser than the other. The key anti-Arian term.

Nicene Creed

Orthodox statement of Christian belief from Nicaea (325). Says Christ is "God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten not made" — fully divine, equal to the Father. Still used today.

Arianism

Heresy by Arius of Alexandria. Christ was CREATED by God the Father — posterior and inferior to God, not eternal. Arius excluded from community in 318; condemned at Nicaea 325.

Gnosticism

Heresy meaning "knowledge" (gnosis). The material world is evil, created by a lesser god (Demiurge). Salvation = escaping the physical body through secret spiritual knowledge. Humans contain a "divine spark." Produced the Nag Hammadi texts (52 Coptic texts found in Egypt, 1945).

Montanism

Heresy from Montanus (Phrygia/Asia Minor). Believed in imminent Second Coming and ecstatic direct prophecy from the Holy Spirit. Priestesses Maximilla and Priscilla led. Ascetic lifestyle. Tertullian joined late in his life.

Marcionism

Heresy by Marcion of Sinope (2nd c.). The God of the Old Testament is a tyrant/Demiurge — completely separate from the loving God of Jesus. Rejected the entire Hebrew Bible.

Donatism

North African heresy after Diocletian's persecutions. Refused sacraments from traditores — clergy who had handed over sacred texts to Roman authorities to avoid punishment. Named after Bishop Donatus Magnus.

Monophysitism

Heresy claiming Christ has ONLY ONE nature (divine) — rejecting the idea that Christ was also fully human. Condemned at Council of Chalcedon (451).

5 characteristics of heresies

All heresies share: 1) Await immediate return of Christ, 2) Critical/selective with the Bible, 3) Own leadership structures, 4) Ascetic lifestyle, 5) Emphasis on miracles and extraordinary events.

Why heresies mattered

Forced the Church to define orthodoxy precisely, write creeds, create formal councils, and define the biblical canon (Councils of Hippo 393 and Carthage 397). Also led to apostolic succession doctrine.

Why Romans persecuted Christians

NOT for their beliefs — Romans were religiously tolerant. For their BEHAVIOR: refusing Roman gods (looked like treason), meeting in secret (suspicious), misunderstood rituals (cannibalism, incest accusations). Christianity was NEW — Judaism was tolerated because it was ancient.

Palatine Graffito

A mocking graffiti showing a man worshipping a crucified figure with a donkey's head. Caption: "Alexamenos worships his god." Evidence that Romans accused Christians of onolatria (donkey worship). Tertullian referenced this accusation.

Roman legal framing of persecution

Charges were vague — "dangerous superstition" (exitiabilis superstitio) or "new and evil cult." Roman authorities needed control and public approval. Refusal to worship the emperor = political betrayal (impiety).

Pliny the Younger (111–113 CE)

Roman governor of Bithynia. Wrote Letters 10.96–97 to Emperor Trajan — never dealt with Christians before. Interrogated Christians, executed those who refused to recant or honor Roman gods. Found them guilty only of "depraved superstition."

Trajan's reply to Pliny

Do NOT seek Christians out. Anonymous accusations are INVALID and set a bad precedent. If formally accused and refuse to recant — punish. If they recant — release. Policy: reactive, not proactive.

Hadrian's rescript (121–122 CE)

Reinforced Trajan's policy. Added: anyone making a false accusation against a Christian must be punished. Proconsul Granianus had asked the question.

Decius persecution (250 CE)

First empire-wide systematic persecution. Required all citizens to sacrifice to Roman gods and get a libellus (certificate of compliance). First time persecution was coordinated across the whole empire.

Valerian (257–258 CE)

Two edicts specifically targeting Christian leaders — bishops, priests, deacons. Killed leadership to disrupt Church organization.

Diocletian (302–305 CE)

Four edicts — the most systematic persecution. Destroyed churches, burned scriptures, forced Christians to sacrifice. Led to the Donatist schism over how to treat those who complied.

Edict of Toleration (Galerius, 311 CE)

First official Roman edict ending persecution of Christians. Issued by Emperor Galerius, who had been one of the worst persecutors. Precedes the Edict of Milan by two years.

Martyrdom — definition

Voluntary suffering or death for refusing to renounce religious faith. Seen by Christians as union with Christ, guarantees heaven, inspires conversions, creates martyr cults.

Martyrdom of Polycarp (c. 155–156 CE)

Bishop of Smyrna. First major post-NT martyrology account. Had a vision from God predicting his death. Burned alive — miraculously survived fire — then stabbed. His death sparked the cult of martyrs and served as a template for all future martyr stories.

Letter of the Churches of Vienne and Lyons (177 CE)

Documents mass persecution of Christian communities in Gaul (France) under Marcus Aurelius. Shows martyrdom as a communal, not just individual, experience. Communities bonded through shared suffering.

Martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas (202–203 CE)

Perpetua = young noblewoman in Carthage. Felicitas = her pregnant slave. Both refused to renounce faith under Septimius Severus and were killed in the arena. Perpetua kept a prison diary — one of the earliest texts written by a Christian woman. Shows martyrdom crosses class and gender.

How persecution spread Christianity

When believers were persecuted, they fled to new regions (North Africa, Asia Minor, Gaul) and brought their faith. Persecution created community solidarity, accelerated Church organization, and paradoxically caused growth.

Christian population growth

50 CE: ~1,000 Christians (0.002% of empire). 350 CE: ~30 million (50%+). Explosive growth through conversion, community networks, and the appeal of a universal, cross-class religion.

St. Stephen

First Christian martyr — stoned to death. His death recorded in Acts of the Apostles.

Ichthys (fish symbol)

Greek acronym: Iesous Christos Theou Yios Soter = Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior. Used as a secret code by Christians during persecutions.

Arch of Constantine (312–315 CE)

Triumphal arch in Rome, built by Senate. Most reliefs recycled from Trajan (khaki), Hadrian (blue/purple roundels), Marcus Aurelius (yellow panels) — faces recarved as Constantine. His own frieze (green/bottom): Siege of Verona, Milvian Bridge, Triumph, Address to People.

Paganism vs. Christianity — key difference

Paganism: polytheistic, ritual-based, syncretistic, localized, no fixed doctrine. Christianity: exclusive monotheism, doctrine-based, universal Church, salvation-focused. Key: Romans only cared if you did the rituals — Christians cared what you BELIEVED.

Pax deorum

"Peace of the gods" — Roman concept that performing correct ritual secured divine favor for Rome. Christians disrupted this by refusing to participate. Under Theodosius, Christian orthodoxy replaced pax deorum as the basis of imperial unity.

Julian the Apostate (r. 361–363 CE)

Constantine's nephew. Raised Christian but reverted to paganism. Tried to restore Roman traditional religion as emperor. Died after only 2 years — paganism's last stand, and it failed.

Imperial cult

Province-wide worship of the Roman Emperor. Temples, statues, and altars dedicated to emperors. Participation reinforced unity across diverse provinces. Refusal = disloyalty. Christians' refusal was the core reason they were persecuted.

Domus Ecclesiae

"House-church" — private home adapted for Christian worship. Earliest form of Christian gathering space. No dedicated buildings — just a room set aside.

Dura Europos (233–256 CE)

Oldest identified Christian building, in Syria. Converted house with a dedicated baptistery decorated with frescoes: Healing of the Paralytic, Christ and Peter walking on water, Women at the Tomb, Samaritan Woman at the Well.

Tituli

Domus Ecclesiae permanently donated to the Church by wealthy Romans. Became fixed community centers. Before 312, all Roman churches were called tituli.

Basilica (Christian)

Borrowed from Roman civic halls after 313 CE. Long rectangular nave, side aisles, semicircular apse at the east end (altar). Added transept to create cross shape. Constantine's first: St. John the Lateran (seat of Bishop of Rome).

Basilica architectural elements

Nave (central hall), Aisles (sides), Apse (east end, altar), Narthex (entrance porch), Atrium (front courtyard), Transept (perpendicular arm), Clerestory (high windows), Crypt (below altar, access to martyr's tomb).

Martyrs' Basilicas

Built extra moenia (outside city walls) along Roman roads, near tombs of martyrs. Circus-shaped layout. Examples: Saint Sebastian, Saint Lorenzo, Saint Agnes, SS. Peter and Marcellinus.

Dogmatic Sarcophagus (c. 320–350 CE)

Marble coffin, two registers. Named "dogmatic" — reflects Nicene doctrine. MOST IMPORTANT FACT: Contains the first known image of the Trinity — three identical old men creating Eve. Also: Adoration of Magi, Baptism of Christ, Miracle of Loaves, Daniel.

Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus (359 CE)

Marble coffin of Praefectus Urbi (city administrator) of Rome. Converted just before death at 42 — inscription says "neofitus." 10 scenes in arched niches: Sacrifice of Isaac, Trial before Pilate, Entry into Jerusalem, Traditio Legis, Daniel, Adam and Eve.

Traditio Legis

"Handing of the Law" — Christ gives a scroll to Peter, flanked by Paul. Symbolizes authority passing from Christ to the Church. Seen on the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus and in the Catacomb of SS. Marcellino e Pietro.

Door of Santa Sabina (c. 432 CE)

Carved cypress wood door, Aventine Hill, Rome. One of the FIRST known images of the Crucifixion — figures in orant posture with nails in hands, no cross shown. Two artistic styles (Eastern and Hellenistic). Also shows: Empty Tomb, Magi, Miracles of Christ, Moses, Ascension.

Why Crucifixion avoided in early art

Crucifixion was a shameful criminal death. Early Christians were slow to represent it publicly. The Santa Sabina door (c. 432 CE) is one of the earliest examples.

Catacomb of Priscilla

Underground burial tunnels in Rome. Contains the oldest known image of the Virgin Mary — Annunciation/Madonna scene, c. 3rd century CE.

Necropolis of Saint Peter

Ancient burial ground under St. Peter's Basilica. Contains a mosaic of Jesus as Sol Invictus (Sun God) driving a solar chariot like Apollo. Symbolizes Resurrection — Christ rising like the sun every morning.

Sol Invictus / Jesus as Sun God

Early Christian image borrowing pagan sun imagery. Clement of Alexandria called Christ "the Sun of the Resurrection." The rising sun = perfect symbol for Resurrection conquering death. Used especially in the Vatican Necropolis mosaic.

Early image of Jesus

Young, beardless Greek philosopher — NOT the bearded figure of later tradition. Also shown as Good Shepherd (Humanitas) and as orante/praying figure (Pietas). The bearded image developed later.

Jesus with Peter and Paul

Standard early Christian iconographic trio representing apostolic authority. Found in catacombs (SS. Marcellino e Pietro) and on the Santa Sabina door.

Mithraeum under San Clemente

Under the church of San Clemente in Rome: layers of a 4th-century basilica ON TOP of a 1st-century house ON TOP of a Mithraic temple (c. 200 CE). Mithraism = dying/rising god, sacred meal, secret initiation, Sunday worship. Clearest physical proof of Christianity absorbing pagan spaces.

Christianity from Judaism

Judaism gave Christianity: monotheism, Hebrew scriptures (OT), Messianic expectation, community gatherings, ethical law. Paul opened it to Gentiles — making it universal. The NT was written in Greek, not Hebrew.

Christianity absorbed Greco-Roman culture

Borrowed: Greek philosophical language (Logos), Roman administrative structure (bishops as governors), pagan mystery religion rituals (baptism/eucharist), visual imagery (philosopher Jesus, Sol Invictus), and architecture (Basilica from Roman civic halls).

Paganism — how the word was invented

"Paganism" does not appear in any ancient Roman writing. It was a term invented BY Christians to describe non-Christian/non-Jewish religion. Romans never called themselves pagans.

Apostolic succession

The idea that Church authority flows Jesus → apostles → bishops. Developed as a response to heresy — the Church needed to prove its teaching was legitimate and connected to Jesus. Also used to reject Montanism's claim that anyone could receive direct revelation.

Biblical canon

The official list of books accepted as scripture. Formalized at the Council of Hippo (393 CE) and Council of Carthage (397 CE). Before this, many texts circulated — including Gnostic gospels (Nag Hammadi) and various Apocrypha.

Apocrypha

Greek: "to hide away." Non-canonical texts excluded from the New Testament. Includes: Infancy Gospels, Gnostic Gospels (e.g. Gospel of Judas), Passion Gospels. Rejected by mainstream Church but important for understanding early Christian diversity.

Theodosian Code (438 CE)

Compiled by Theodosius II. Over 2,500 imperial laws issued between 313 and 437 CE. First systematic publication of all Roman government laws. Included major religious legislation (CTh 16.10 on paganism, CTh 16.5 on heresy).

Edict of Toleration (Galerius, 311 CE)

First Roman edict ending persecution. Issued just before Galerius died. Allowed Christians to exist and meet legally, as long as they didn't disturb public order. Preceded the Edict of Milan by 2 years.

Donatism — Lapsi controversy

After Diocletian's persecutions, debate over how to treat "Lapsi" (those who had lapsed — offered pagan sacrifice or handed over texts). Donatists refused to accept their ministry. Two councils (Rome 313, Arles 314) ruled against Donatists. First major example of emperor involved in Church internal politics.