PSYCHOLOGY

Psychodynamic

behavior comes from unconscious conflicts (Freud ideas)

Behavioral

behavior is learned through rewards/punishment

Humanistic

focus on free will and personal growth

Cognitive

how we think, remember, and process information

Biological

brain, genes, hormones affect behavior

Evolutionary

behavior helps survival and reproduction

Sociocultural

culture and society influence behavior

Biopsychosocial

combines biological + psychological + social factors

Confirmation bias

only notice info that supports your belief

Hindsight bias

“I knew it all along” after something happens

Overconfidence

thinking you are more correct than you really are

Empirical evidence

data from observation or experiment

Scientific method

steps to test ideas

Falsifiable

can be proven wrong

Replication

repeating study to see if results match

Reliability

results are consistent

Validity

measures what it should measure

American Psychological Association (APA)

the scientific study of the mind and behavior.

methodology

plan of how study is done

Quantitative data

numbers (scores, percentages)

Qualitative data

descriptions (words, opinions)

Structured interviews

same questions for everyone

Survey technique

collecting primary data from a representative sample using questionnaires or interviews to measure attitudes, behaviors, or opinions

Naturalistic observation

observation of subjects in their natural environments, without manipulating variables

Wording effect

question phrasing changes answers

Social desirability

people give “good-looking” answers

Case study

deep study of one person/group

Correlational research

a non-experimental, quantitative method that measures the statistical relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them

Third variable problem

hidden factor affects both variables

Positive correlation

a statistical relationship where two variables move in the same direction

Negative correlation

one goes up, other goes down

Experimental method

tests cause and effect (manipulate variables)

Confounding variable

unwanted variable affects result

Operational definition

clear definition of variables

Placebo effect

fake treatment still causes effect

Experimenter bias

researchers unintentionally influence study results to match their expectations through biased data collection, participant interaction, or interpretation

Single-blind:

where the participant does not know if they are receiving the treatment or a placebo, but researchers do

Double-blind

neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving a particular treatment or a placebo

Representative sample

a small, accurately selected subset of a larger population that reflects the key characteristics (e.g., age, income, gender) of the whole group

Sample bias

ystematic error occurring when certain members of a target population are more likely to be selected for a study than others, resulting in a non-representative sample

Generalizability

can apply results to larger group

Descriptive statistics

summarize and organize the main features of a dataset, providing simple numerical or graphical summaries about the sample and measures

Inferential statistics

a branch of statistics that uses data analyzed from a sample to make generalizations, predictions, or inferences about a larger population.

Measure of central tendency

mean, median, mode

normal curve

a symmetrical, bell-shaped graph representing the frequency distribution of data where most scores cluster around the mean.

Regression to the mean

a statistical phenomenon where extreme, unusual, or lucky performances are likely to be followed by scores closer to the average

Percentile rank

a measure indicating the percentage of scores in a distribution that fall at or below a specific score

Meta-analysis

a quantitative, statistical research method that combines data from multiple independent studies to identify patterns, disagreements, or overall effects

Effect size

how much impact an independent variable has on a dependent variable

Institutional Review Boards (IRB):

an independent committee designated to approve, monitor, and review research involving human subjects to protect their rights, safety, and welfare

Confidentiality

the ethical or legal obligation to protect private information, ensuring it is only accessible to authorized individuals

Deception

intentionally hiding the truth, often used in research to ensure participants act naturally, or in social settings for personal gain or to avoid conflict.

Confederates

an actor working with researchers who poses as a participant to manipulate social context or influence behavior

Debriefing

explain study after it ends

Evolutionary perspective

behavior helps survival

Natural selection

Organisms that are more adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and pass on the genes that aided their success.

Nature

genes

nurture

environment

Twin studies

compare identical vs fraternal twins (Identical (monozygotic) twins form when one fertilized egg splits into two, sharing nearly 100% of the same DNA and the same sex. Fraternal (dizygotic) twins form from two separate eggs fertilized by two different sperm, sharing about 50% of their DNA, similar to regular siblings)

Adoption studies

compare adopted child to biological vs adoptive parents

Family studies

look at traits in families

Heredity

passing traits through genes

Genetic predisposition

an increased likelihood of developing a specific disease due to inherited genetic variants.

Eugenics

idea of improving humans by controlling breeding (managed by humans to select for specific, desirable traits. It involves controlling reproduction to improve genetic lines, maintain species, or enhance agricultural performance)

Cerebral cortex:

responsible for high-level functions like thought, memory, language, and voluntary movement

frontal lobes

the largest part of the human brain, located directly behind the forehead, These lobes manage complex behaviors, including planning, decision-making, emotional control, and impulse inhibition.

Prefrontal cortex

ront-most part of the frontal lobe responsible for complex behaviors, including planning, decision-making, personality expression, and moderating social behavior

executive functioning

a set of high-level cognitive processes—centered in the prefrontal cortex—that enable self-regulation, planning, organization, and goal-directed behavior.

Motor cortex

a region in the frontal lobe of the brain, specifically located in the precentral gyrus, essential for planning, controlling, and executing voluntary muscle movements

Parietal lobes

key brain regions located behind the frontal lobes, responsible for integrating sensory information, spatial awareness, and navigation (touch)

Somatosensory cortex

located in the brain's parietal lobe, processes sensory information from the body like touch, temperature, pain, and proprioception (body sensation)

Occipital lobes

primary visual processing centers of the mammalian brain, located at the back of the skull (vision)

Temporal lobes

key brain structures located on both sides of the head behind the ears, critical for auditory processing, language comprehension (Wernicke’s area), and memory encoding (hippocampus).

Corpus callosum

a thick band of over 300 million nerve fibers, or axons, that connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres, facilitating vital communication between them. It acts as a bridge for transmitting motor, sensory, and cognitive information, enabling integrated brain function

Brainstem

The brainstem, comprising the midbrain, pons, and medulla, is the oldest part of the brain, vital for survival by controlling autonomic functions like breathing, heart rate, and sleep.-plays a key role in alertness and arousal via the reticular formation and contributes to emotional processing and motor control

Medulla

the lowest part of the brainstem, essential for survival by controlling autonomic, involuntary functions such as breathing, hear

Reticular activating system (RAS)

a network of neurons in the brainstem (located in the reticular formation) that acts as the brain's filtering and arousal system(complex network of brain regions and neurotransmitters that regulates wakefulness, alertness, and conscious perception), regulating wakefulness, sleep-wake cycles, and attention.

Cerebellum

"little brain," is a vital structure at the back of the skull, beneath the cerebrum, that acts as the brain's coordinator for movement, balance, and posture

Thalamus

a pair of large, oval, grey matter structures located in the center of the brain above the brainstem, serving as the main relay station for sensory and motor information traveling to the cerebral cortex

Hypothalamus

• Location: below thalamus

• Function:

  • hunger

  • thirst

  • body temperature

  • controls hormones

Pituitary Gland

• Location: below hypothalamus

• Function: controls other glands (called “master gland”)

regulates essential bodily functions—including growth, metabolism, and reproduction—by releasing hormones into the bloodstream

Hippocampus

• Location: near center (temporal lobe area)

• Function: plays a critical role in forming, organizing, and storing new long-term memories, as well as spatial navigation.

Amygdala

• Location: near hippocampus

• Function: fear, aggression, emotional reactions

Reward Center

• Location: limbic system pathways

• Function: releases dopamine → pleasure, motivation

Central Nervous System (CNS)

consists of the brain and spinal cord, acting as the primary control center for the body. It processes sensory information, regulates body functions, and controls thoughts, emotions, and movements.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

• Location: nerves outside CNS

• Function: connects body to CNS

Somatic Nervous System

a division of the peripheral nervous system that enables voluntary control of body movements via skeletal muscles and transmits sensory information to the central nervous system (CNS)

Autonomic Nervous System

controls involuntary functions

Sympathetic

• Function: fight-or-flight

• Effects: ↑ heart rate, ↑ breathing

Parasympathetic

• Function: rest-and-digest

• Effects: ↓ heart rate, calm body

Neuron

• Location: throughout nervous system

• Function: send electrical signals

exp.

• Motor neurons: brain → muscles

• Interneurons: connect neurons (in brain/spinal cord)

• Sensory neurons: body → brain

• Reflex arc: automatic response

Resting potential

the stable, negative electrical charge difference across a neuron or muscle cell membrane when it is not actively signaling

Threshold

the minimum intensity or change in a stimulus required to trigger a conscious sensation, perception, or neural response

Action potential

electric polarization across a neuron or muscle cell membrane, acting as a fundamental signal in the nervous system

All-or-nothing principle

a neuron or muscle fiber will fire completely or not at all, with a consistent maximum response, regardless of the intensity of the stimulus, provided the threshold is met.


A neuron gets signals

1. It checks: “Is this strong enough?” (threshold)

• ✅ If YES →
  ⚡ it sends a full electrical signal (action potential)

• ❌ If NO →
  🚫 nothing happens

Depolarization

cellular process where the internal charge of a cell becomes less negative (more positive) - essential for nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction, typically triggered when a stimulus raises the membrane potential above a certain threshold.

Refractory period

neuron resets

NEUROTRANSMITTERS

hemical messengers released by neurons to transmit signals across a synapse to other neurons, muscle cells, or glands

glutamate

the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the vertebrate nervous system, playing a critical role in brain function, learning, and memory. (act as chemical messenger, simulating nerve cells)
-excitatory → MORE firing

GABA

pushes the neuron away from the threshold

• harder to fire

• slower activity

• less signaling

-inhibitory → LESS firing