WA&M Exam 2

Work motivation research

This discipline tries to explain why people choose to work, how hard they work, and hoe long they persist.

Definition of motivation

Factors or events that energize, channel, and sustain human behavior over time.

Definition of Work Motivation

A set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual’s being, to initiate work-related behaviors, and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration.

What motivation influences

• Direction (what people choose to do)

• Intensity (how hard they try)

  • Persistence (how long they continue)

Important characteristics of work motivation

• Focuses on work behaviors

• Motivation itself is not directly observable

• We infer motivation from, behavior

Content-Based Approaches of Motivation

Specify the psychological, traits, motives, tendencies, and orientations. Resides within people (inherent/internal factors or acquired factors).

These theories explain internal factors that drive motivation.

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Key factors:

• Motivation originates within the individual

• Psychological traits, motives, and orientations shape behavior

• These factors create stable preferences for certain goals and actions

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• Need fulfillment: Basic needs necessary for human survival and growth

• Intrinsic motivation: Innate psychological needs for autonomy, competence, relatedness

• Justice motives: universal desire for fairness

• Personality traits

• Learning goal orientation

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• Maslow’s needs hierarchy

• Self-detemination theory

• Equity theory

Context-Based Approaches of Motivation

Focus on features of the environment. In some situations, people feel more (less) motivated

• Extrinsic rewards

• Task and job characteristics

• Group- and team-level influences

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• Job characteristics theory

• Job crafting

Process-Based Approaches of Motivation

2 interdependent subsystems: a system governing goal selection and a system governing goal enactment. Goal setting processes increasing motivation.

• Expectancy theory

• Theory of planned behavior

• Self-regulation

• Goal setting theory

Need-Based Theories

People are motivated to obtain what they need.

Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy

Universal need-based theory to explain the motivation of purpose-driven behaviors in terms of several needs

• Physiological, safety, love, and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization

• Rigid progression up the hierarchy beginning with basic needs is most often proposed: prior levels need to be fulfilled before striving for the next need level (however, this is not entirely true)

• Although research has not fully supported this hierarchy, the value of this theory is highlighted

ERG Theory

Need-based theory

Focuses on existence, relatedness, and growth needs (compressing Maslow’s 5 levels).

• No strict hierarchical progression is built into this model

• Research has not strongly supported this explanation of motivation, but ERG has led to additional theories based on need satisfaction

Need for Achievement Theory

Need-based theory

Focuses on the single need for achievement that arises in people’s goal-directed behaviors. Only focuses on self-actualization.

• A a personality characteristic, this need appears to influence personal motivation at work and within society

• This theory’s specificity makes it more easily applicable within organizations than other need theories

Self-Determination Theory (SDT)

• Need-based theory (content-based theory)

• An organismic theory suggesting that people inherently strive for growth and their fullest potential

• Involves several smaller motivational theories associated with intrinsic personal motivation

• Focuses on the degree to which an individual’s behavior is self-motivated and self-determined

• Acquiring the 3 basic needs determines motivation

Competence

• One of the 3 basic needs according to the Self-determination theory (SDT)

• Feeling effective in dealing with environment/activities

Autonomy

• One of the 3 basic needs according to the Self-determination theory (SDT)

• Having a choice, being able to control the course of own life

Relatedness

• One of the 3 basic needs according to the Self-determination theory (SDT)

• Feeling connected to others, sense of belonging

Equity Theory

Content-based theory

• Based on ideas from social exchange theory

• Employees evaluate fairness in the workplace

• Comparing ratios:

  • Personal outcomes/inputs : Others’ outcomes/inputs

• Motivation is influenced by perceived fairness

Social Exchange Theory

Assumptions:

1. Humans tend to seek out rewards and avoid punishments

2. Individuals begin an interaction to gain maximum profit with minimal cost

3. Individuals tend to calculate the profit and cost before engaging

4. Individuals know that this “payoff” ill vary from person to person, as well as with the same person over time

Take the benefits and subtract the costs in order to determine how much a relationship is worth.

Equity (as part of equity theory)

Equity: When your ratio is equal to the ratios of other similar workers

Inequity (as part of equity theory)

Develops when there is a discrepancy

• Underpayment — You receive less relative to your inputs → anger, frustration (strongly supported)

• Overpayment — You receive more than others → guilt (less consistently supported → people don’t always feel guilt or adjust their behavior; self-serving bias)

Equity Theory

Workers are motivated to resolve discrepancies via multiple strategies:

• Increase outcomes

• Reduce inputs

• Adjust perceptions

• Change comparative standard

• Withdraw from the exchange

People are not only motivated by need fulfillment and intrinsic drive, but also based on social comparisons.

An employee experiencing overpayment may use the same basic strategies (but people can also be greedy).

Theory shows that motivation is influenced by fairness; employees are motivated not only by needs rewards but also by social comparisons.

Trait-Based Motives

Some motivation theories focus on stable individual differences that influence motivation.

Examples:

• Motives

  • Achievement motive — desire to accomplish difficult tasks and achieve high standards of excellence

  • Power motive

  • Affiliation motive

• Personality traits

  • Big 5

  • Core self-evaluations

• Motivational orientations — individuals differ in how they approach goals

  • Regulatory focus theory — promotion focus, prevention focus

  • Goal orientation

Promotion Focus (Regulatory Focus Theory)

“I want to achieve the best possible outcome.” “I want to do my best.”

• Focus on growth, achievement, and advancement

• Motivated by: hopes, aspirations, gains

• Typical behavior: pursuing opportunities; taking risks to achieve success

Prevention Focus (Regulatory Focus Theory)

“I want to make sure nothing goes wrong.” “I don’t want to fail.”

• Focus on security, responsibility, and avoiding losses

• Motivated by: duties, obligations, avoiding mistakes

• Typical behavior: being cautious, trying to prevent failure

Learning Goal Orientation (LGO)

Focus on developing competence and mastering new skills. Wanting to do well based on a passion to learn.

People with high LGO tend to:

• Use more metacognitive strategies

• Be more motivated to learn

• Set higher goals

• Show greater engagement and persistence

Performance Goal Orientation (PGO)

Focus on demonstrating high ability and gaining favorable evaluations from others

Context-Oriented Theories

Focus on features of the environment that affect motivation and performance, not dispositional factors.

• Extrinsic rewards

• Task and Job Characteristics (job characteristics theory)

• Group- and team-level influences (ex — group loafing, climate, team cohesion, shared team identity, affective commitment, etc.)

Job Characteristics Theory

Job-based theory

Characteristics of a person’ job are key motivational influences on behavior within organizations

• Core job dimensions of skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback

• Linked to critical psychological states (experienced meaningfulness, responsibility, knowledge of results)

• One’s growth-need strength moderates the relationship between dimensions and psychological states and then outcomes

• Parts of this theory have been useful

Process-Based Approaches

Views motivation as comprised of two interdependent subsystems: a system governing goal selection and a system governing goal enactment

• Expectancy theory

• theory of planned behavior

• Self-regulation

• Goal setting theory

In organizations, fairness influences:

• Motivation

• Trust in management

• Employee attitudes and behaviors

How do employees judge fairness?

Based on employee perceptions, not objective rules

Key characteristics of justice perceptions:

Fairness perceptions are often subjective and context-dependent

• Justice perceptions are based on social comparisons

• Injustice is more salient than justice

• Fairness perceptions can be egocentric and self-serving

• Individuals tend to perceive outcomes that benefit themselves as more fair

Organizational Justice

Overall perception of what is fair in the workplace

Distributive Justice

Perceived fairness of outcomes (how much outcomes are fairly distributed)

Process determining outcome distributions:

• Procedural

• Interactional

  • Interpersonal

  • Informational

Procedural Justice

Perceived fairness of process used to determine outcomes (fairness in process)

Interactional Justice

Perceived degree to which one is treated with dignity and respect

Are there opportunities to form social relationships?

Informational Justice

Perceived fairness, truthfulness, and adequacy of explanations provided regarding decisions or procedures

Work Behavior Outcomes of Organizational Justice

Work Behavior

• Higher task performance

• More OCBs

• Fewer CWBs

Different justice dimensions show slightly different patterns

Outcomes of Distributive and Procedural Justice

More strongly related to task performance

Outcomes of Interpersonal and Informational Justice

More strongly related to OCB

Psychological Outcomes of Organizational Justice

• Trust in management

• Organizational Identification

• Emotional reactions such as anger, guilt, and pride

These reactions can influence behaviors such as turnover intentions, engagement, and cooperation

Outcomes of Organizational Justice: Employee Well-Being and Health

Unfariness linked to:

• Burnout

• Stress

• Mental health problems

• Negative emotional states

Organizational Practices that Promote Fairness (5 types)

1. Address the root causes of perceived justice

2. Provide opportunities for employee voice

3. Allow managerial discretion

4. Build a fair organizational climate

5. Justice is context dependent

Organizational Practices that Promote Fairness: Address the Root Causes of Perceived Injustice

Managers should focus on identifying an correcting the underlying sources of unfairness, rather than only reacting to employee complaints. Remove the source of injustice

Organizational Practices that Promote Fairness: Provide Opportunities for Employee Voice

Allowing employees to express concern or frustrations can reduce retaliation and negative reactions after unfair treatment

Organizational Practices that Promote Fairness: Allow Managerial Discretion

Strict rules do not always guarantee fairness. Managers who rely only on formal rules may behave less fairly than those who are able to exercise judgement and moral reasoning in their decisions. Increase autonomy

Organizational Practices that Promote Fairness: Build a Fair Organization Climate

• Justice Climate: Shared perceptions of fairness within teams

• Organizations can promote justice by:

  • Encouraging fair treatment across teams

  • Fostering respectful relationships among coworkers

  • Establishing transparent communication practices

• Justice perceptions often develop collectively within teams, not only through individual experiences

Organizational Practices that Promote Fairness: Justice is Context Dependent

• Employees from different cultures, teams, or work environments may evaluate fairness differently

• Managers should therefore consider context and cultural expectations when designing fairness practices

Training as a Justice Practice

Fairness can be strengthened through training when organizations help employees practice justice in real situations

Effective elements of procedural justice training

• Focus on concrete behavioral principles (voice, neutrality, respect, trustworthiness)

• Use role plays and realistic scenarios so employees can practice difficult interactions

• Allow employees to express frustrations first before introducing fairness principles

• Provide simple reminders after training (e.g., follow-up messages, pocket guides)

• Align managers with the same training goals

Training Outcomes

• Job satisfaction improved

• Prosocial attitudes improved

• Burnout did not increase

Justice & Culture: Justice perceptions tend to be especially important in countries characterized by:

Effective fairness practices may differ across cultures

• Individualism: competitive pay and rewards for individual performance

• Femininity: Work-life balance and social recognition

• Uncertainty avoidance: fixed compensation and employee participation

• Low power distance: ethical leadership and transparent treatment

Organizational Withdrawal

A higher-order construct represented by two behavioral families:

1. Work withdrawal (lateness, absence, etc.)

2. Job withdrawal (turnover, early retirement, and choosing to be laid off / voluntary turnover)

Why are withdrawal behaviors a serious organizational issue?

• Lost work time

• Lower productivity

• Overtime or replacement costs (recruitment and training costs)

• Increased workload for coworkers

• Delays in coordination

• Reduced service quality

• Lower concentration and effort

• Loss of organizational knowledge

• Negative signals to coworkers

• Withdrawal behaviors may spread socially

5 Potential Models of Withdrawal Behaviors: Independent Forms

Lateness, absenteeism, and turnover have no relationship (not very convincing)

5 Potential Models of Withdrawal Behaviors: Compensatory Forms

Lateness, absenteeism, and turnover have negative correlations. Some work attitudes (such as job dissatisfaction) cause those behaviors but if the person selects one behavior (e.g., lateness), the person does not take the other behaviors (i.e., absenteeism and turnover). (not very convincing)

5 Potential Models of Withdrawal Behaviors: Alternate Forms

Similar negative attitudes may produce different withdrawal behaviors. The specific behavior depends on situational constraints and opportunities (3rd variable)

Examples:

• Weak labor market → less turnover

• Generous sick leave policy → more absence

5 Potential Models of Withdrawal Behaviors: Spillover Model

Lateness, absenteeism, and turnover are related but does not specify a temporal ordering between them. Claims less occurrence is random but doesn’t seem true

5 Potential Models of Withdrawal Behaviors: Progression of Withdrawal Model

• Withdrawal behaviors show small to moderate correlations. They seem to represent a shared withdrawal process

• Lateness, absenteeism, and turnover are related and there is a temporal ordering between them. When levels of lateness increases, absenteeism will occur, and then turnover will occur

• Lateness → absenteeism → turnover

• Most supported model, lateness/absenteeism/turnover follows a strict order

• Employee-organization loyalty is weaker than before

  • Even satisfied employees may leave after an unexpected shock (unfolding model)

Absenteeism

• Withdrawal behavior

• A lack of physical presence

• Cost for organization — loss of production

Presenteeism

• Going to work while ill

• Attending work while not at full capacity to work can decrease productivity and/or increase other poor behaviors

• Cost for organization — less productivity

Factors that Lead to Absenteeism and Presenteeism

• Organizational factors: work hours, conflict, support, etc.

• Individual factors: job satisfaction, organizational commitment, stress, etc.

• Specific health problems

• Socio-demographic indicators: gender, age, marital status, children

Past Studies on Turnover

• Assumed job satisfaction and organizational commitment most strongly influenced turnover

  • Low job satisfaction → intention to quit → turnover

• Realistic job previews (RJPs) can help minimize decreased job satisfaction

• Price’s taxonomy: a broad range of turnover determinants including workplace, labor market, community and occupational drivers

• Functional turnover (vs. dysfunctional turnover): “good” vs. “bad” turnover; turnover is not always negative

Contemporary Perspectives on Turnover

Traditional turnover research focused on why individuals decide to leave. More recent research shows that turnover is often less predictable and more socially embedded

• Turnover without leaving (e.g., quiet quitting)

• Different types of staying (enthusiastic stayer vs. reluctant stayer)

• Sudden turnover (unfolding model)

• Turnover contagion

• Collective turnover

Contemporary Perspectives on Turnover: Turnover Without Leaving

• Quiet quitting

• Employees do not resign, they reduce discretionary effort

• Formal retention does not always mean real engagement

Contemporary Perspectives on Turnover: Different Types of Staying

• Enthusiastic stayer vs. reluctant stayer (unmotivated and unengaged. wants to leave but can’t)

• Some stay because they are committed

• Some stay because leaving is difficult

• Some stay because of social or family ties

Contemporary Perspectives on Turnover: Unfolding Model

Employees don’t always leave through a slow dissatisfaction process (traditionally believed to be that way)

Employees may leave suddenly → Shock: An even that causes employees to reconsider staying

Examples:

• Conflict with a supervisor

• Unfair treatment

• Spouse relocation

A shock is not always negative

• A better job offer

• Family-related reasons

“Unfolding”: The decision process unfolds differently depending on the trigger

• Employees may follow different paths to turnover

• The model represents multiple turnover patterns

Steps of the Unfolding Model

1. Shock: A specific even that triggers employees to reconsider staying in the organization (organizational, personal, or external)

2. Script: A preexisting plan of action for how to respond to a situation based on past experience, observation, or social expectations

3. Image Violation: A perception that the current situation no longer matches one’s values, goals, or expectations

4. Satisfaction: A gradual decline in job satisfaction when the job no longer provides desired benefits (e.g., intellectual, emotional, or financial)

5. Search: The process of looking for alternative jobs and evaluating available options

Decision Paths in the Unfolding Model

1. A shock triggers an already planned decision to leave

2. A shock causes a strong value mismatch and immediate quitting

3. A shock leads employees to compare options before leaving (takes more time to leave)

4. Dissatisfaction builds over time and leads to quitting (no shock); older perspective of turnover

5. Dissatisfaction builds over time, followed by job search and quitting (no shock); older perspective of turnover

Contemporary Perspectives on Turnover: Turnover Contagion

• Turnover is not only an individual decision but also a social and organizational phenomenon

• One employee’s departure can increase quitting among coworkers

• Employees observe others leaving and reassess their own situation

• Social information and uncertainty reduction play important roles

• Example: A respected coworker leaves, and other begin to consider leaving too

Contemporary Perspectives on Turnover: Collective Turnover

• Turnover is not only an individual decision but also a social and organizational phenomenon

• Turnover can accumulate at the team or unit level

• High collective turnover may disrupt coordination and performance

• The effects of beyond individual costs

• Example: A department loses several employees within a short period

Job Embeddedness