BSC2085 UNIT 1

The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another is known as _.

Anatomy

What branch of anatomy focuses on structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye?

Gross (macroscopic) anatomy

The study of the function of the body is called _.

Physiology

The principle of complementarity of structure and function states that function is always dependent on _.

Structure

What is the lowest (simplest) level of structural organization in the human body?

Chemical level

What is the smallest unit of all living things?

The cell

A group of cells and the materials surrounding them that work together to perform a specific function is a(n) _.

Tissue

Which level of organization consists of two or more tissue types that perform a common function?

Organ level

"What is the most complex level of organization, representing the sum of all structural levels working together?"

Organismal level

Which necessary life function involves the ability to sense changes in the environment and respond to them?

Responsiveness (irritability)

The sum of all chemical reactions that occur within the body is known as _.

Metabolism

Metabolism: Anabolism

Definition: Synthesizing more complex cellular structures from simpler substances.

Metabolism: Catabolism

Definition: Breaking down substances into simpler building blocks.

What is the survival purpose of atmospheric pressure in the human body?

It is necessary for proper breathing and gas exchange.

Which organ system forms the external body covering and synthesizes vitamin D?

Integumentary system

What is the process of blood cell formation that occurs within the skeletal system?

Hematopoiesis

The _ system releases nerve impulses that control muscles and glands.

Nervous

Which organ system contains glands that secrete hormones to regulate processes like growth and nutrient use?

Endocrine system

The _ system picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and houses white blood cells involved in immunity.

Lymphatic (Immune)

Which organ system is responsible for the exchange of gases between the blood and the external environment?

Respiratory system

Which organ system eliminates nitrogenous wastes and regulates the acid-base balance of the blood?

Urinary system

What term describes the body's ability to maintain a dynamic state of equilibrium in its internal environment?

Homeostasis

"In a feedback system the _ pathway carries information from the receptor to the control center.

Afferent

"In a feedback system, the _____ pathway carries information from the receptor to the control center."

Afferent

What is the most common type of feedback mechanism in the body?

Negative feedback

What is the primary purpose of negative feedback systems?

To prevent sudden severe changes within the body by reversing the direction of the original stimulus.

Give two examples of normal physiological processes controlled by positive feedback.

Blood clotting and labor contractions (pregnancy).

Describe the anatomical position.

Standing erect with feet flat on the floor and palms turned forward.

Directional Term: Superior

Definition: Toward the head end or upper part of a structure; above.

The skin is _ to the skeletal muscles.

Superficial

"In anatomical terms

the elbow is _ to the wrist."

Which body plane divides the body into equal right and left halves?

Midsagittal (median) plane

A(n) _ plane divides the body into anterior and posterior sections.

Frontal (coronal)

Which plane divides the body into superior and inferior sections?

Transverse (cross) section

The dorsal body cavity is subdivided into the cranial cavity and the _ cavity.

Vertebral (spinal)

Which muscle separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity?

The diaphragm

"What is the thin, double-layered membrane that covers the walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of its organs?"

Serosa (serous membrane)

Serosa: Parietal Layer

Definition: The part of the membrane lining the cavity walls.

Serosa: Visceral Layer

Definition: The part of the membrane covering the external surface of the organs within the cavity.

What is the specific name of the serous membrane surrounding the lungs?

Pleura

The liver and gallbladder are primarily located in which abdominopelvic region?

Right hypochondriac region

Which abdominopelvic region is located directly superior to the umbilical region?

Epigastric region

The appendix is located in the _ quadrant of the abdomen.

Right lower

Energy that is stored or inactive is called _ energy.

Potential

What type of energy results from the movement of charged particles (ions) across cell membranes?

Electrical energy

Which four elements make up approximately $96\%$ of the human body weight?

"Carbon

The atomic number of an element is determined by the number of _ in its nucleus.

Protons

What term describes atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons?

Isotopes

Mixture: Colloid

"Definition: A heterogeneous mixture where large solute particles scatter light but do not settle out (e.g.

"How many electrons are required to fill the first

second

An atom that has lost one or more electrons and carries a positive charge is a(n) _.

Cation

Which type of chemical bond involves the complete transfer of electrons from one atom to another?

Ionic bond

"In a(n) _____ covalent bond, electrons are shared equally between atoms."

Nonpolar

"What is the weakest type of chemical bond

often acting as an attraction between water molecules?"

Reaction Type: Dehydration Synthesis

Definition: A reaction where a water molecule is removed to bond two monomers together into a polymer.

Which type of chemical reaction absorbs energy from the environment?

Endergonic reaction

How do biological catalysts (enzymes) increase the rate of chemical reactions?

They lower the activation energy required for the reaction.

Water properties: High heat of vaporization

Significance: It allows the body to cool effectively through the evaporation of sweat.

"A substance that dissolves in water is termed _

while one that does not is termed _."

What is the normal physiological pH range of human blood?

$7.35$ to $7.45$

"An acid is defined as a proton ($H^{+}$) _

while a base is a proton _."

What is the function of a buffer system in the body?

To resist large and abrupt swings in pH.

What happens to a protein during the process of denaturation?

It unravels and loses its specific three-dimensional shape and function.

What are the four major groups of organic molecules in the human body?

"Carbohydrates

What is the main monosaccharide used by the body to produce ATP?

Glucose

In what form do humans store carbohydrates in the liver and skeletal muscles?

Glycogen

A triglyceride is composed of one molecule and three .

Glycerol; fatty acids

Which type of lipid is the main component of the plasma membrane?

Phospholipids

What type of lipid is used by the body as a precursor to synthesize steroid hormones?

Cholesterol

Protein Structure: Primary

Definition: The linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

What are the three components of a nucleotide?

"A nitrogenous base

Which nitrogenous base is found in RNA but NOT in DNA?

Uracil

What are the three main parts of a human cell?

"Plasma membrane

"The fluid outside the cell is called _ fluid

while the fluid inside is _ fluid."

Which ion is found in high concentration in the extracellular fluid (ECF)?

Sodium ($Na^{+}$)

What membrane proteins extend through the entire thickness of the phospholipid bilayer?

Integral proteins

Cell Junction: Tight Junction

Function: Creates an impermeable seal between cells to prevent molecules from passing through the intercellular space.

Cell Junction: Desmosome

"Function: Acts like a rivet to anchor adjacent cells together

Which cell junction allows for direct chemical communication and the passage of ions between adjacent cells?

Gap junction

Passive transport moves substances from an area of concentration to an area of concentration.

High; low

The diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane is called _.

Osmosis

What happens to a red blood cell when placed in a hypertonic solution?

It loses water and shrinks (crenates).

What happens to a red blood cell when placed in a hypotonic solution?

It gains water and may burst (lyse).

Active transport: $Na^{+}/K^{+}$ Pump

Function: It pumps $3$ $Na^{+}$ out of the cell and $2$ $K^{+}$ into the cell using ATP.

Transport mechanism: Phagocytosis

Definition: A type of endocytosis where the cell engulfs large solid particles ('cell eating').

"In the second messenger system

which molecule usually acts as the first messenger?"

The condensed form of DNA found in the nucleus during cell division is called _.

Chromosomes

Organelle: Mitochondria

Function: The 'powerhouse' of the cell that produces the majority of the cell's ATP.

Organelle: Ribosome

Function: The site of protein synthesis.

What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?

"To modify

Which organelle contains digestive enzymes to break down worn-out cell parts and bacteria?

Lysosome

Organelle: Peroxisome

Function: To detoxify harmful substances like alcohol and neutralize free radicals.

Which cytoskeletal element forms the mitotic spindle during cell division?

Microtubules

What is the function of microvilli?

To increase the surface area of the plasma membrane for absorption.

During which phase of the cell cycle does DNA replication occur?

S phase of Interphase

Mitosis: Metaphase

Key Event: Chromosomes line up along the equator (middle) of the cell.

Mitosis: Anaphase

Key Event: Sister chromatids are pulled apart toward opposite poles of the cell.

The division of the cytoplasm that occurs at the end of mitosis is called _.

Cytokinesis

Protein Synthesis: Transcription

Process: Creating an mRNA sequence from a DNA template in the nucleus.

Protein Synthesis: Translation

Process: Decoding mRNA into a specific polypeptide chain at the ribosome.