Honors Biology Final Exam Review

Comprehensive practice vocabulary flashcards covering Honors Biology topics including protein synthesis, Genetics, Evolution, Human Systems, and Ecology based on lecture review notes.

Transcription

The process of exposing one gene on DNA and synthesizing a strand of complementary mRNA from it; it takes place in the nucleus of the cell.

RNA Nucleotide

The subunit of RNA consisting of three parts: a 5-C Sugar (ribose), a Phosphate, and a Nitrogen Base.

mRNA (Messenger RNA)

The type of RNA that brings the genetic code from DNA to the ribosome.

tRNA (Transfer RNA)

The type of RNA that brings amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthesis.

rRNA (Ribosomal RNA)

The type of RNA that serves as the site of translation.

Translation

The process occurring in the cytoplasm where the code from mRNA is turned into a protein (RNA sequence $\rightarrow$ Amino Acid sequence).

Codon

A nucleotide triplet in a strand of mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid.

RNA Polymerase

The enzyme responsible for making an mRNA copy from the DNA template strand during transcription.

Introns

Non-coding sections of mRNA in eukaryotes that are removed before the RNA leaves the nucleus.

Exons

The coding sections of mRNA that are spliced together after introns are removed.

Alleles

Different alternative forms of a gene, such as tall or dwarf for height.

Law of Segregation

Mendel's 1st law stating that during meiosis, homologous chromosomes separate and each allele for a trait is packaged into a separate gamete.

Law of Independent Assortment

Mendel's 2nd law stating that different loci (genes) separate into gametes independently if they are on separate chromosomes.

Incomplete Dominance

A genetic scenario where the heterozygote shows an intermediate, blended phenotype, such as pink flowers from red and white parents.

Co-dominance

A genetic scenario where two alleles affect the phenotype equally and separately, such as in human ABO blood groups.

Sex-linked traits

Genes located on sex chromosomes (X or Y) rather than autosomes, which result in different patterns of inheritance.

Karyotyping

A visual representation of the 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes used to reveal genetic information.

Pedigree

A chart of the genetic history of a family over several generations used to analyze trait inheritance.

Pleiotropy

A condition where one gene has a host of consequences and multiple phenotypic effects, such as Sickle-Cell Disease.

Epistasis

A genetic interaction where one gene completely masks the expression of another separate gene.

Hardy-Weinberg Theorem

States that allele and genotype frequencies in a population's gene pool remain constant over generations unless acted upon by agents other than segregation and recombination.

Hardy-Weinberg formulas

Equations used to calculate allele and individual frequencies: $p + q = 1$ for alleles and $p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1$ for individuals.

Genetic Drift

Chance fluctuations in the gene pool that can cause genotype frequencies to change, especially in small populations.

Descent with Modification

Darwin's phrase for the theory that all organisms are related and species change over time from a common ancestor.

Homologous Structures

Structures in different species that have a related structure but provide a different function, believed to be derived from a common ancestor.

Analogous Structures

Structures that have similar functions but do not appear to be derived from a common ancestor, such as bird and moth wings.

Vestigial Structures

Structures that appear to have no current function but resemble structures with similar roles in other organisms, like the human coccyx.

Homeostasis

The maintenance of stable internal conditions despite changes in the internal or external environment.

Hormones

Chemical messengers released into the bloodstream that cause an effect elsewhere at a particular target tissue.

Pituitary Gland

A pea-sized 'master gland' at the base of the brain that secretes hormones to stimulate other glands under the control of the hypothalamus.

Brainstem

Part of the brain that connects to the spinal cord and regulates involuntary functions like breathing, swallowing, and heart rate.

Cerebellum

The 'little brain' located at the lower back of the brain that regulates balance and coordination.

Cerebrum

The largest, highest center of the brain responsible for conscious awareness, thinking, memory, and intelligence.

Dendrites

The receiving portion of the neuron that carries the impulse towards the cell body.

Axon

The part of the neuron that carries the impulse away from the cell body and is covered in a myelin sheath.

Biotic Factors

All living organisms inhabiting the Earth that make up the environment.

Abiotic Factors

Nonliving parts of the environment such as temperature, soil, light, and moisture.

Niche

The role an organism plays in a community, defined by its diet and interactions with other living things.

Nitrogen Fixation

The process by which certain bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen ($N_2$) into ammonium ($NH_4^+$).

10% Rule

The principle that only about $10\%$ of the energy from one trophic level is available to the next, while the remaining $90\%$ is lost as heat.

Carrying Capacity

The environmental limit to a population's size caused by the limited availability of space, food, or water.

Keystone Species

A plant or animal that plays a unique and crucial role in the way an ecosystem functions.