Bio 111 Final

Evolution

Change in allele frequencies in a population over time

Natural Selection

Process where advantageous traits become more common

Adaptation

Inherited trait that increases fitness

Fitness

Ability to survive and reproduce

Mutation

Ultimate source of new genetic variation

Genetic Drift

Random change in allele frequencies

Gene Flow

Movement of alleles between populations

Founder Effect

Genetic drift from a small founding population

Bottleneck Effect

Genetic drift after dramatic population reduction

Speciation

Formation of new species

Homologous Structures

Evidence of common ancestry

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Model of a non-evolving population

p+q=1

Allele frequency equation

p²+2pq+q²=1

Genotype frequency equation

Virus

Obligate intracellular parasite

Capsid

Protein coat surrounding viral genetic material

Envelope

Outer membrane on some viruses

Influenza

RNA virus with H and N proteins

Hemagglutinin

Influenza protein that binds host cells

Neuraminidase

Influenza protein that aids spread

Antigenic Drift

Small mutations over time

Antigenic Shift

Major viral genetic change

Immune System

Protects body from pathogens

Pathogen

Disease-causing agent

B Cell

Produces antibodies

T Cell

Cell-mediated immunity

Helper T Cell

Coordinates immune response

Cytotoxic T Cell

Kills infected cells

Antibody

Protein that binds antigen

Antigen

Molecule recognized by immune system

Memory Cell

Provides faster future response

Vaccine

Stimulates immunity without disease

Herd Immunity

Population-level protection

MHC-I

Marker identifying self cells

Natural Killer Cell

Kills abnormal cells lacking proper MHC-I

Lymph Node

Filters lymph

Thymus

Site of T-cell maturation

Red Bone Marrow

Site of B-cell maturation

Spleen

Filters blood

Ecology

Study of interactions between organisms and environment

Population

Members of same species in an area

Community

All populations in an area

Ecosystem

Community plus abiotic factors

Biome

Large climate-defined region

Biosphere

All ecosystems on Earth

Habitat

Where an organism lives

Niche

Role of a species

Competition

Organisms compete for resources

Predation

One organism consumes another

Mutualism

Both species benefit

Commensalism

One benefits, other unaffected

Parasitism

One benefits, other harmed

Carrying Capacity

Maximum sustainable population size

Limiting Factor

Restricts population growth

Food Chain

Linear energy pathway

Food Web

Interconnected feeding relationships

Producer

Makes own food

Consumer

Obtains energy by eating

Decomposer

Recycles nutrients from dead matter

Climate Change

Long-term alteration of climate

Greenhouse Effect

Heat trapped by atmospheric gases

Carbon Cycle

Movement of carbon through Earth systems

Carbon Sink

Long-term carbon storage

Fossil Fuel

Ancient organic carbon source

Biodiversity

Variety of life

Mass Extinction

Rapid loss of many species

Anthropocene Extinction

Human-driven extinction event

Photosynthesis

Converts light energy to glucose

Photosynthesis Equation

6CO2+6H2O+light→C6H12O6+6O2

Chloroplast

Site of photosynthesis

Chlorophyll

Light-capturing pigment

Calvin Cycle

Builds sugars from CO2

Cellular Respiration

Breaks down glucose to make ATP

ATP

Cell's energy currency

Mitochondria

Site of respiration

Why can't individuals evolve?

Evolution changes allele frequencies in populations, not individuals

What is required for natural selection?

Variation, inheritance, and differential reproduction

Ultimate source of variation?

Mutation

Small populations are most affected by?

Genetic drift

What does 2pq represent?

Heterozygous frequency

What does q² represent?

Homozygous recessive frequency

Why do viruses need host cells?

They lack reproductive machinery

Two required parts of every virus?

Genetic material and capsid

Why update flu vaccines yearly?

Influenza evolves rapidly

What do antibodies bind?

Specific antigens

Why is second infection usually weaker?

Memory cells respond faster

What happens when MHC-I is missing?

Natural killer cells may destroy the cell

Why do vaccines work?

They generate memory cells

Smallest ecological level?

Individual organism

Level containing multiple species?

Community

Level including abiotic factors?

Ecosystem

Why are decomposers essential?

They recycle nutrients

Process removing CO2 from atmosphere?

Photosynthesis

How do fossil fuels affect carbon cycle?

Release stored carbon

Why does CO2 warm Earth?

Strengthens greenhouse effect

Inputs of photosynthesis?

CO2, water, light

Outputs of photosynthesis?

Glucose, oxygen

Inputs of respiration?

Glucose, oxygen

Outputs of respiration?

CO2, water, ATP

Which respiration stage makes most ATP?

Electron transport chain