AP PSYCH ALL TERMS

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Nature

The influence of our genetic inheritance (biology and heredity) on behavior and mental processes. In the nature vs. nurture debate, _ refers to the biological factors that shape who we are.

Evolutionary Perspective

A theoretical approach in psychology that explains behavior and mental processes in terms of their adaptive value for survival and reproduction. It emphasizes how natural selection has shaped behavior over generations.

Natural Selection

A principle of evolution proposed by Charles Darwin stating that traits that enhance survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed on to future generations. This process explains how certain behavioral traits may have evolved.

Behavior Genetics

The study of how heredity (genes) and environment interact to influence behavior and mental processes. Behavior geneticists examine individual differences by looking at both genetic and environmental factors.

Mutations

Random errors in gene replication that lead to changes in an organism's genetic code. can introduce new traits, some of which may provide an advantage or disadvantage in terms of natural selection.

Environment

Every non-genetic influence, including culture, family, education, and life experiences. It refers to all external factors that affect behavior and development.

Heredity

The transmission of genetic traits from parents to offspring. It plays a key role in determining physical and behavioral characteristics.

Genes

Biochemical units of heredity that make up the DNA. _ provide the instructions for making proteins and influence traits such as intelligence, temperament, and susceptibility to mental disorders.

Genome

The complete set of an organism's genetic material. In humans, the _ includes all the instructions needed to build and maintain the body and brain.

Nuture

The influence of environmental factors—such as upbringing, culture, and experience—on behavior and mental processes. In the nature vs. debate, nurture refers to everything learned or experienced.

Eugenics

A controversial and unethical movement based on the idea of improving the genetic quality of the human population through selective breeding. It has been used to justify discrimination and forced sterilizations.

Identical (Monozygotic) Twins

Twins that develop from a single fertilized egg that splits into two genetically identical organisms. They are often studied to assess the impact of heredity vs. environment on traits.

Fraternal (Dizygotic) Twins

Twins that develop from two separate eggs fertilized by two different sperm. They are genetically no more similar than regular siblings, sharing about 50% of their DNA.

Interaction

The idea that the effects of one factor (such as environment) depend on another factor (such as heredity). In psychology, this often refers to how genes and environment work together to influence behavior.

Epigenetics

The study of how environmental influences can trigger or block gene expression without changing the DNA sequence itself. explains how nurture can affect nature.

Nervous System

The body's electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells in the central and peripheral . It enables us to sense, move, think, and react.

Centeral Nervous System

Made up of the brain and spinal cord. It processes information and is the control center for thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

Nerves

Bundles of axons that form the communication lines of the nervous system. They connect the CNS to muscles, glands, and sensory organs in the peripheral nervous system.

Reflexes

Automatic, involuntary responses to stimuli. are processed in the spinal cord, not the brain, and serve as protective mechanisms (e.g., pulling your hand away from a hot surface).

Autonomic Nervous System

A division of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary functions such as heartbeat, digestion, and breathing. It operates automatically without conscious control.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The branch of the ANS that arouses the body and mobilizes energy in stressful situations—triggering the "fight or flight" response (e.g., increasing heart rate and respiration).

Peripheral Nervous System

All the nerves outside the CNS. It connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body and includes both somatic and autonomic systems.

Somatic Nervous System

The part of the PNS that controls voluntary movements of the skeletal muscles and transmits sensory information to the CNS.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The branch of the ANS that calms the body and conserves energy after stress passes. It restores the body to a resting state—the "rest and digest" system.

Neurons

The basic building blocks of the nervous system; specialized cells that transmit information throughout the body using electrical and chemical signals.

Cell Body

The central part of a neuron that contains the nucleus and other structures that keep the cell alive; it integrates incoming information from the dendrites

Dendrites

Branch like extensions from the neuron's cell body that receive messages from other neurons and transmit them toward the cell body.

Axon

A long fiber that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body and toward other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Myelin

A fatty insulating layer that surrounds the axon and speeds up neural impulses. Damage to the slows or blocks messages.

Synapse

The gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of another where neurotransmitters are released to pass messages.

Glial Cells

Support cells in the nervous system that nourish, protect, and clean up after neurons. They also help maintain the myelin sheath.

Reflex Arc

The neural pathway involved in a reflex action. A includes a sensory neuron, interneuron, and motor neuron, bypassing the brain for a quicker response.

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors (like skin or eyes) to the central nervous system.

Motor Neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing instructions from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands, causing movement or action.

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that connect sensory and motor neurons and coordinate processing.

Action Potential

A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon when a neuron fires. This is how neurons communicate.

All-or-Nothing Principle

The idea that a neuron either fires at full strength or not at all. There is no partial firing of action potential.

Depolarization

The process during the action potential when positive ions enter the neuron, reducing the negative charge inside the axon and initiating the neural impulse.

Reuptake

The process by which excess neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron after crossing the synapse. This ends the neurotransmitter's effect.

Multiple Sclerosis

A disease where the myelin sheath is damaged, causing slowed or blocked communication between the brain and body. Symptoms may include fatigue, numbness, and loss of motor control.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that travel across the synapse and influence whether a neuron will generate an action potential.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that increase the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire (e.g., glutamate, dopamine).

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in movement, motivation, attention, and reward. Imbalances are linked to Parkinson's disease (low dopamine) and schizophrenia (excess dopamine).

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter and hormone involved in alertness, arousal, and the fight-or-flight response. Also influences mood.

GABA

The brain's main inhibitory neurotransmitter. It calms neural activity and helps regulate anxiety and sleep. Low levels are linked to seizures and insomnia.

Substance P

A neurotransmitter involved in pain perception. It carries pain messages to the central nervous system.

Hormones

Chemical messengers released by glands into the bloodstream, affecting behavior, mood, growth, and metabolism. Slower than neurotransmitters but have longer-lasting effects.

Leptin

A hormone secreted by fat cells that signals the brain to reduce appetite and increase energy use. It helps regulate body weight.

Melatonin

A hormone released by the pineal gland that helps regulate the sleep-wake cycle (circadian rhythm). Its levels increase in darkness, promoting sleep.

Refractory Period

A brief time after a neuron fires during which it cannot fire again because it is recharging.

Resting Potential

The electrical charge across a neuron's membrane when it is not firing; the neuron is polarized and ready to fire.

Threshold

The level of stimulation needed for a neuron to fire; if this is reached, an action potential occurs.

Myasthenia Gravis

A neuromuscular disorder caused by a lack of acetylcholine receptors, leading to muscle weakness.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that decrease the likelihood that the receiving neuron will fire an action potential.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter linked with mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; low levels are associated with depression.

Glutamate

The brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in learning and memory. Excess is linked to migraines and seizures.

Endorphins

Natural painkillers produced by the brain; they also create feelings of pleasure or euphoria.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, learning, and memory; low levels are linked with Alzheimer's disease.

Endocrine System

The body's slow chemical communication system; a set of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream.

Adrenaline

A hormone released by the adrenal glands in response to stress; increases heart rate, blood pressure, and energy.

Ghrelin

A hormone that signals hunger to the brain; produced in the stomach.

Oxytocin

A hormone involved in bonding, trust, and social interactions; sometimes called the "love hormone."

Psychoactive Drug

Substances that change perceptions, mood, or behavior by affecting brain chemistry.

Substance Use Disorder

A pattern of substance use that leads to significant problems or distress, including tolerance, withdrawal, and failed attempts to quit.

Antagonist

A chemical that blocks or inhibits the action of a neurotransmitter by occupying its receptor site.

Stimulants

Drugs that increase neural activity and speed up body functions, such as heart rate and alertness.

Caffeine

A stimulant found in coffee, tea, and energy drinks; increases alertness by blocking adenosine.

Cocaine

A powerful stimulant that produces euphoria and increased energy; works by blocking the reuptake of dopamine.

Methamphetamines

A highly addictive stimulant that increases dopamine levels, leading to euphoria, energy, and long-term brain damage with repeated use.

Ecstasy

A synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen that produces euphoria, emotional intimacy, and dehydration; can damage serotonin-producing neurons.

Opiods

Drugs, such as morphine and heroin, that depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety by binding to endorphin receptor sites.

Heroin

A highly addictive opioid drug that produces a rush of euphoria followed by lethargy and withdrawal symptoms.

Addiction

Compulsive drug craving and use, despite negative consequences.

Agonist

A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action by binding to receptor sites and mimicking its effects.

Reuptake Inhibitor

A drug that blocks the reabsorption of neurotransmitters into the sending neuron, increasing neurotransmitter availability in the synapse.

Depressants

Drugs that calm neural activity and slow body functions.

Barbiturates

Depressant drugs that reduce anxiety but impair memory and judgment; sometimes prescribed as tranquilizers.

Alcohol

A depressant that slows brain activity controlling judgment and inhibitions, while also slowing neural processing and memory formation.

Hallucinogens

Psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images without sensory input.

Near-Death Experience

An altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death, often similar to drug-induced hallucinations.

Marijuana

A drug containing THC that produces mild hallucinations, relaxation, and altered perception; remains in the body for weeks.

LSD

A powerful hallucinogen that produces vivid sensory distortions and emotional reactions.

Tolerance

The diminishing effect of a drug with regular use, requiring larger doses to achieve the same effect.

Withdrawal

Discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug.

Biological Psychology

The study of how the brain, nervous system, and other biological processes influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Biopsychosocial Approach

An integrated perspective that considers biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors in understanding behavior and mental processes.

Levels of Analysis

The different complementary views (biological, psychological, social-cultural) used to explain complex behavior and mental processes.

Brain Plasticity

The brain's ability to change by reorganizing pathways and forming new connections, especially after injury or through learning.

EEG

A technique that records electrical activity of the brain through electrodes placed on the scalp.

MEG

A technique that measures magnetic fields produced by brain activity to show brain function.

MRI

A brain scan that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of brain structures.

CT

An imaging method that uses X-rays to create detailed pictures of the brain's structure.

PET

A brain scan that tracks radioactive glucose to show areas of brain activity.

fMRI

A technique that measures blood flow and oxygen use in the brain to show both structure and activity.

Lesions

Tissue destruction; in brain research, a method where part of the brain is intentionally or accidentally damaged to study its function.

Brain Stem

The oldest part of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions like breathing and heartbeat.

Hindbrain

The lower part of the brain (including medulla, pons, and cerebellum) that controls basic life functions and movement.

Midbrain

The central part of the brainstem that helps with movement, sensory processing, and arousal.

Forbrain

The largest and most complex part of the brain that includes higher thinking, emotion, and sensory processing.

Medulla Oblongata

The base of the brainstem; controls vital functions such as heartbeat and breathing.