Class 23: CH 12 last 4 sections

How do men and women differ in aggression?

• Men: more likely to engage in physical aggression (e.g., violence, assault, homicide)

• Women: more likely to engage in relational/verbal aggression (e.g., gossip, exclusion, threats to friendships)

• Overall aggression levels are similar, but differ in type of expression

Conclusion:
Gender differences in aggression are mainly about how aggression is expressed, not how much.

consequences of verbal aggression

victims at high risk for depression.

distress and humiliation

What factors explain gender differences in aggression?

• Biological factors: men have higher testosterone, which is linked to aggression (especially under provocation)

• Physical differences: men are generally larger and stronger, making physical aggression more likely

• Cognitive factors: men are more likely to interpret others’ actions as hostile or provoking

trait aggressiveness

A stable personality characteristic that predisposes individuals to engage in aggressive behavior across various situations. This trait can influence one's likelihood of using either physical or verbal aggression.

• more likely than others to agress over time and across situations, susceptible to hostile thoughts, express anger, engage in physical and verbal aggression

How does parenting influence aggression across generations?

• Coercive parenting, inconsistent discipline, and physical abuse increase aggression

• Exposure to family conflict also promotes antisocial behavior

• These patterns can create a cycle of aggression

• Aggressive behavior can be passed down across 3 generations

hostile attribution bias

the degree to which a person who is provoked infers that another’s actions were committed with hostile intent. even when other’s intentions are innocent

• more of this leads to more aggressive reactions

How does early childhood abuse influence later aggression?

How does early childhood abuse influence later aggression?

What evidence shows that aggression has a genetic component?

• Twin studies compare identical vs. fraternal twins

• Identical (monozygotic) twins are more similar in aggression than fraternal (dizygotic) twins

• Aggression levels remain correlated over time, especially in identical twins

• Suggests aggression is partly influenced by genetics

How are genes and serotonin linked to aggression?

• No single “aggression gene,” but links exist with serotonin regulation

• Serotonin helps regulate stress and impulse control

• Low serotonin levels are associated with higher aggression

• The enzyme MAO-A (monoamine oxidase A) helps process serotonin

• A rare low level of MAO-A variant is linked to violent and antisocial behavior bc difficulty metabolizing serotonin (for someone who’s experienced maltreatment)

  • warrior gene

poor intellectual functioning can:

• result in ppl not being able to process subtleties of a social situation

• not know how to interpret other’s actions

• lead to frustration bc of reading/ math deficits

• difficult to understand inappropriateness of aggression

How do self-esteem, narcissism, and unstable self-esteem, and impulsivity relate to aggression?

• Low self-esteem: more emotional reactions to failure, criticism, and rejection

• Narcissism:

  • Grandiose but fragile self-view

  • Often linked to low implicit self-esteem

  • Highly sensitive to threats or slights

• Unstable self-esteem: self-worth fluctuates based on social feedback

• Both narcissism and unstable self-esteem → greater aggression when provoked

• impulsivity: react without thinking for consequences

How does the prefrontal cortex relate to aggression?

• The prefrontal cortex controls self-regulation and impulse control

  • reduced = greater impulsive reaction

• Violent individuals (e.g., murderers) show lower activity (glucose metabolism) in this region

• People with weaker frontal lobe functioning are more aggressive when provoked

• Those with stronger functioning show less aggressive responses

sadism

A tendency to derive pleasure from inflicting pain or suffering on others, often associated with aggressive behavior and a lack of empathy.

section review: 12.5 individual differences in aggression

aggression causal approaches

analyze why individuals act destructively, focusing on biological, psychological, and social factors.

Key theories include evolutionary adaptation, social learning, cognitive scripts, and the frustration-aggression hypothesis.

normative approaches to aggression

self-regulating standards that evaluate whether an aggressive response is appropriate in a given situation. They often act as mediators between situational triggers (e.g., provocation) and the behavioral response.

How does alcohol increase aggression?

• Impairs self-control and higher-order thinking

• Reduces inhibitions → more impulsive reactions to provocation

• Limits ability to consider consequences

• Higher doses → more aggression

• weakens self regulation

• less distressed by their mistakes by mistakes

What is alcohol myopia and how does it relate to aggression?

• Alcohol reduces ability to process social cues (e.g., emotions)

  • cant read emotions on face of another person

• Focuses attention on immediate cues, not consequences

• Leads to misreading situations and escalating conflict

• Makes people more likely to be both aggressors and victims

section review: alcohol & aggression 12.6

domestic violence

• Occurs between romantic partners who interact frequently

• High commitment makes people more likely to tolerate abuse

• Experiencing aggression → increased acceptance of future aggression

• Leads to a cycle of escalating violence

what predicts spousal abuse?

3 types of domestic violence offenders

• psychopathic abuser

• overcontrolled abuser

• borderline abuser

psychopathic abuser

• physical aggression inside and outside the relationship

• bullies w low impulse control

• history of violence

overcontrolled abuser

• not violent generally but builds up resentment

• uses relationship w partner as target for displaced aggression

borderline abuser

• narcissistic and likely to have borderline personality

• uncertain, insecure sense of self

• proclivity for defensiveness

• abandonment issues

• anger

• impulsivity

• disordered childhood attachment with parents, involving neglect or abused

• relationship is source of psychological security so they get jealous and control partner

• cyclical pattern of abuse and then apology

What are key patterns of rape and sexual coercion?

• Most perpetrators are known to the victim

• Date rape (within dating/relationships) is more common than stranger rape

• Among college women:

  • ~50% report some form of sexual coercion

  • 6–15% report rape

What did Malamuth (1981) find about men’s willingness to rape?

• Men rated likelihood of raping if they could “get away with it”

• 65% said zero likelihood

• 35% reported some likelihood (> 0)

• Especially concerning given social pressure to deny such behavior

How do sexually aggressive men view sex and power?

• Associate sex with power and control

• When primed with power (e.g., “authority,” “control”), rate women as more attractive

• Low perceived power → may use sexual aggression to compensate

What is hostile masculinity syndrome?

• Combination of:

  • Hostile sexism

  • Belief in rape myths

  • Insecurity about masculinity/power

  • Sexual arousal from dominance

• Linked to sexual coercion and partner abuse

• Stronger in convicted rapists, especially with general aggressiveness

What do experiments show about media exposure and sexual aggression?

• Watching films with sexual coercion/rape → ↑ rape myth acceptance and acceptance of violence

• Violent pornography → ↑ aggression toward women (especially after provocation)

• Nonviolent sexual content:

  • No immediate aggression effect

  • But long-term exposure → ↑ acceptance of violence and ↑ risk of sexual aggression

section review: violence against women 12.7

what is catharsis

A psychological theory that suggests releasing strong or repressed emotions can lead to a reduction in aggression and violence. It proposes that expressing feelings, such as anger, can provide relief and diminish the likelihood of aggressive behavior.

Does catharsis reduce aggression?

• Catharsis (venting aggression) is a myth

• Includes both:

  • Direct (e.g., hitting something)

  • Vicarious (e.g., watching violent media)

• Actually increases aggression by:

  • Making violence seem acceptable

  • Reinforcing aggressive scripts

  • Increasing arousal, which can be misinterpreted as anger

• Evidence: people are more aggressive after violent events (e.g., sports, films)

societal intervention

1. reduce frustration by improving quality of life

2. better control access to weapons

3. more effectively punish aggression

4. reduce or reframe media depictions of aggression

How can aggression be reduced by addressing frustration?

• Reduce sources of frustration (e.g., poverty, poor living conditions)

• Improve social conditions, especially in high-risk communities

• Address systemic issues (e.g., unfair or excessive policing)

• Teach children problem-solving, communication, and negotiation skills

How do firearms influence aggression and how can harm be reduced?

• Presence of guns → primes aggressive thoughts (weapons effect)

• Handling guns can ↑ testosterone → ↑ aggression

• Firearms make aggression more lethal, especially assault weapons

• Solutions:

  • Limit access to high-risk weapons

  • Red flag laws → restrict access for high-risk individuals

    • if they have signs of crisis or violent intent, block from purchasing firearms

Does punishment reduce aggression?

• Can reduce aggression if people expect serious consequences

• But can also backfire by:

  • Modeling aggression

  • Increasing frustration

• Example: physically punished children → more aggressive later

What makes punishment effective in reducing aggression?

Must be:

• Severe (but not modeling aggression)

• Prompt (immediate)

• Perceived as justified

• Consistent

multisystematic therapy

addresses multiple factors influencing a child's behavior, combining interventions for families, schools, and communities to reduce aggression and improve overall well-being.

rehabilitation

a process aimed at restoring an individual's well-being and reducing future aggression through various therapeutic interventions.

• no deterrence (instill fear or doubt of consequence) or retribution (receiving deserved punishment/vengeance)

How can media be used to reduce aggression?

• Limit exposure to violent media, especially for children

• Show negative consequences of aggression → reduces aggressive behavior

• Avoid portraying aggression as rewarding or beneficial

• Promote prosocial media (e.g., prosocial video games) → ↓ aggression, ↑ helping behavior

interpersonal interventions

1. improve parental care

   1. better communication

2. strengthen social connections

   1. more cooperation

   2. improve social skills

3. enhance empathy

   1. take another POV

individual interventions

1. improve emotional self-awareness

2. increase self regulatory strength

   1. minimize obstacles

   2. training

3. teach how to minimize hostile attributions

4. improve people’s sense of self-worth and control

What did Berkowitz & Troccoli (1990) find about self-awareness and aggression?

Procedure:

• Participants experienced discomfort (or not)

• Then either:

  • Distracted with irrelevant task: or

  • Made self-aware (focused on their feelings)

• Then rated another person

Results:

• Distracted + discomfort → more negative (aggressive) ratings

• Self-aware + discomfort → less aggression, even more positive/controlled responses

How can training reduce aggressive behavior in children? (Hudley & Graham, 1993)

• 12-week program targeting hostile attribution bias

• Used games, role-play, and discussion to teach intent interpretation

• Helped children distinguish accidental vs. intentional harm

Results:

• ↓ tendency to assume others have hostile intent

• ↓ verbal aggression

• ↓ teacher-rated aggressive behavior (vs. control group)

How do self-esteem and competence relate to reducing aggression?

• High, stable self-esteem → lower hostility and anger when threatened

• Secure attachments (e.g., supportive relationships) → less aggression and antisocial behavior

• Providing self-worth and belonging can reduce violence (e.g., mentoring youth)

• Aggression can be a substitute for lost feelings of competence/control

• Giving people alternative ways to achieve competence reduces aggressive behavior

section review: reducing aggression 12.8