HSS 486 Training for Sport

Volume

Amount of exercise

• Resistance training = sets x reps

• Endurance training = mileage, time, distance

Intensity

Level of exertion

• Resistance training = %1RM, RPE, etc.

• Endurance training = speed

Maladaption

Adaptation that results in unwanted outcomes

General adaptation syndrome

Exercise is a positive stressor, as training causes improvements in exercise performance; magnitude of adaptations depends on volume & intensity

• Alarm phase — initial training causes decreased performance (fatigue)

• Resistance phase — adaptation occurs and system is returned to baseline performance

• Supercompensation phase — new level of performance capacity (above baseline performance)

• Overtraining phase — if stressors are too high, performance can be further suppressed (too much training decreased performance and increases injury risk)

**Proper volume & intensity of exercise → overall trend of supercompensation and a linear increase in exercise performance

Relationship between intensity and volume

Intensity and volume are inversely related, with different emphasis leading to different fitness results (intensity & volume of training should be sport specific)

• If volume increased, intensity should decrease

• If intensity increased, volume should decrease

**Increasing both intensity and volume over a long period of time can lead to negative effects

Undertraining

Low intensity and/or duration of training results in minor physiological adaptations and no changes in performance

Acute overload

Proper intensity and volume of training results in positive physiological adaptations and minor improvements in performance

Overreaching

Slight increases in intensity and/or volume of training leads to optimal physiological adaptations and optimal performance

• Functional overreaching acts as a systematic attempt to overstress the body for a short period of training (days to weeks)

• Allows the body to adapt to a stronger stimulus, but is easy to cross into overtraining if not cautious

• Short performance decrement (can compromise short-term goals) follows by improved performance and function

Excessive training

Refers to training that is well above what is needed for peak performance but does NOT meet criteria for overtraining

• Volume and/or intensity are too high, but not necessarily causing maladaptions

• For many years athletes undertrained, but more is better is not true after a point

• Ex: swim training 3-4 hours per day was no better than 1.-1.5 hours per day (similar HR & blood lactate improvements, no additional improvements when training 2x per day)

Overtraining

Too high of intensity and/or volume of training over an extended period leads to physiological maladapations, performance decrements, and overtraining syndrome

Optimal training model

Optimal training model should include minimal undertraining (only during rest periods/seasons), mostly acute overload and overreaching, and NEVER venture into overtraining

• Progressive overload is necessary; progressively increases stimulus as body adapts

Periodization

Systematic process of planned variations in a resistance training program to promote the best training adaptations and minimize injury risk; periodized programs are typically divided into 3 distinct cycles: macrocycle, mesocycles, and microcycles

• You must consider the season of sport when designing programs & design the program to coincide with the sports season

• Avoid high volume hypertrophy during in-season (leads to fatigue and decreased performance)

• Continue strength and power training with low volume during in-season to maintain performance and reduce fatigue

Macrocycle

Several months to a year — an “annual plan” or preparatory, competitive, and transition phases

Mesocycle

2-6 weeks — “medium-sized” training cycles or blocks of training with a specific focus

Microcycle

Several days to 2 weeks — “small-sized” training cycles composed of multiple workouts with a specific focus

Overtraining syndrome

Unexplained decrease in performance for weeks, months, or years

• Not remedied by short-term decreases in training or increased rest

• Can occur with all forms of training

• Cause not full understood

• Often related to: programming errors, psychological factors (e.g., emotional pressure of competition), and/or physiological factors (autonomic, endocrine, and/or immune)

Autonomic response to overtraining

Some studies suggest that overtraining is associated with abnormal responses of the autonomic nervous system that can be sympathetic or parasympathetic dominant; decrease in performance is a symptom in both types

Sympathetic dominant ANS overtraining

Usually found with anaerobic or resistance training and is primarily the result of high-intensity overload; symptoms include…

• Increased resting HR & BP

• Loss of appetite & decreased body mass

• Sleep disturbances

• Emotional instability

• Elevated basal metabolic rate

Parasympathetic dominant ANS overtraining

Usually found when aerobic endurance overtraining occurs and is primarily the result of excessive volume; symptoms include…

• Early onset of fatigue

• Decreased resting HR & BP

• Rapid HR recovery after exercise

Endocrine response to overtraining

Measurements of various blood hormone concentrations during overtraining sometimes show disturbances in endocrine function; some possible changes include…

• DECREASED resting thyroxine and testosterone (anabolic)

• INCREASED resting cortisol (catabolic)

  • Resulting testosterone-to-cortisol ratio is possible indicative of protein catabolism and muscle breakdown

• INCREASED resting catecholamines

**Blood markers are helpful but not definitive diagnostic tool (not every athlete with OTS will have these same results)

Immune response to overtraining

• INCREASED circulating cytokines (mediate inflammatory response to infection & injury)

  • Increase in response to muscle, bone, & joint trauma

  • Increased physical stress + decreased rest = systemic inflammation

• Overtraining suppresses immune function

  • Results in abnormally low lymphocytes and antibodies

  • Increased incidence of illness after exhaustive exercise

• Exercise during illness → immune complication

Predicting overtraining

Causes of overtraining are unknown and diagnostics are unreliable; might be better to look for warning signs

• Threshold is different for each athlete

• Intuition is unreliable, but used by most coaches and trainers

• No true preliminary warning symptoms have been scientifically validated, but…

• Heart rate can be one way to monitor that is simple and objective (look for increase in HR in trained individuals)

How can overtraining be prevented?

• Periodized training

• Adequate caloric intake (especially carbohydrates)

• Consider regular screening (e.g., for fatigue)

How is overtraining treated?

• Reduced intensity of training

• Rest (weeks, months) if severe

• Counseling/mental health services

Tapering

Reducing training volume or intensity before major competition; results in…

• Increased muscular strength

• Muscles repaired

• Glycogen reserves replenished

Does tapering result in deconditioning?

Tapering doe NOT result in deconditioning…

• Possible to reduce training volume by 41-60% and maintain VO2max

• Leads to overall improved performance for both strength/power and endurance athletes

Detraining

Reduction in performance that occurs due to immobilization (most severe), training cessation, or training reduction (least severe)

• Muscle endurance decreases quickly

• Oxidative enzyme activity decreases by 40-60%

• Muscle glycogen stores decrease by 40%

Atrophy

Reduced ability to recruit muscle fibers and altered rates of protein synthesis vs. degradation (protein is broken down faster than it is created)

Cross over effect

An immobilized limb will not lose as much strength/atrophy as much if the unimmobilized limb continues being trained

Detraining effects in bed rest studies

• Significant increase in submaximal HR

• 25% decrease in submaximal SV

• 25% decrease in maximal cardiac output

• 27% decrease in VO2 max

How is the pace of VO2max loss different with detraining in trained vs. untrained individuals?

In trained athletes, VO2max is lost faster with detraining and regained more slowly than untrained (more to lose)

How much activity is needed to prevent losses in physical conditioning?

• Losses occur when frequency and duration decreased by 2/3 of regular training load

• 70% VO2max training is sufficient to maintain maximal aerobic capacity

**Aerobic gains are lost more quickly than strength gains — prioritize aerobic training if exercise participation is limited