History final

OASIS

fertile area in a desert

BEDOUINS

nomadic herders in the desert, formed the backbone of dominating armies, traded with other Arabs in oasis towns like Mecca

CARAVAN

group of camels and people traveling through the desert, typically used for trade and pilgrimages

HAJJ

Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, one of the Five Pillars of Islam, performed annually.

CALIPH

successors to Muhammad, leaders of Islamic communities

SHARIA

Set of laws that enforces the Quaran

JIHAD

when a Muslim undertakes a struggle in God’s service

Quaran

holy book of Islam

MUHAMMAD

messenger of God, prophet and founder of Islam

SUNNI

branch of Islam that believes caliphs should be appointed, accepted Abu Bakr as first successor

SHIITES

branch of Islam that believes descendants of Muhammad should be caliph

FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM

faith (only one God, Muhammad is God’s messenger), daily prayer(five prayers a day, facing the Kaaba in Mecca), charity (giving charity to poor), fasting (during Ramadan to practice discipline and empathy for the less fortunate), hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca, expected to journey at least once in lifetime)

HOW WAS ISLAM ABLE TO SPREAD AND MAINTAIN A LARGE AND POWERFUL EMPIRE?

bold efficient fighting methods, and Islam united people, and also Islam promised paradise for those who died in battle, which motivated many to convert and join.

WHAT VALUES AND ASPECTS OF ISLAM MADE IT APPEALING TO CONVERTS?

Islam emphasized equality, community, and social justice, providing a sense of belonging and purpose.

WHAT TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS AND ADVANCES RESULTED FROM THE GOLDEN AGE OF ISLAM?

FIEF

estate granted by a vassal lord in exchange for loyalty

ANTI-SEMITISM

during the Middle Ages, many Christian Church leaders believed that Jews were responsible for the death of Jesus, and as the Church grew more powerful, Jews were forbidden to own land or practice most occupations, Christians would blame Jews in times of illness and famine, leading to Jews migrating to eastern Europe

CANON LAW

The body of laws governing the Christian Church, established by church authorities. Canon Law regulated church practices, moral conduct of the clergy, marriage, and matters of excommunication, Canon Law coexisted with secular law, sometimes competing with it

LAY INVESTITURE

the practice of appointing church officials by secular leaders, leading to conflicts over authority between the church and state.

CHARLAMANGE

Germanic king was proclaimed Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III, promoted learning and Christianity across his empire, conquered most of modern day France and Germany which united most of the old Roman empire

INFRASTRUCTURE

basic systems and structures needed for the functioning of society, including roads, bridges, buildings for trade, travel, and defense (cathedrals, castles, etc.)

CHIVALRY

medieval code of conduct that says knights to be brave, loyal, merciful, and true to their word

THE VIKINGS

raiders who plundered Europe, Viking raids led to widespread fear and resulted in the rise of feudalism and changes in trade routes, they settled in Iceland, Greenland, and parts of North America, known for their agile ships and advanced navigational skills.

HOW DID THE FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE SET THE STAGE FOR THE “DARK AGES”?

dark ages = early middle ages, decline of centralized authority, lead to rise of feudalism

HOW DID THE CHURCH MAINTAIN CONTROL OVER KINGS AND EMPERORS IN THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES?

The Church maintained control through spiritual authority, influencing rulers by claiming divine right, controlling education and information, and imposing excommunication as a tool against disobedient monarchs.

HOW DID A MANOR SERVE AS A SELF-SUFFICIENT COMMUNITY?

A manor was a landed estate that included agricultural land, a village, and the lord's residence. peasants working the land produced food needed for the people within the manor, reducing reliance on outside sources

DAIMYO

feudal lords in Japan who governed large estates and had their own samurai who were sworn to protect their land and stay loyal to their vassar lord

BUSHIDO

code of conduct of samurai that emphasized honor, loyalty, and martial arts skills.

WU ZHAO

only female emperor in Chinese history, ruled during the Tang Dynasty

SHOGUN

military leader in feudal Japan

GENGHIS KHAN

imposed strict military discipline, under him Mongols conquered a vast empire across Asia and Europe

KUBLAI KHAN

grandson of Genghis Khan, completed his grandfather's conquests and became the first Yuan dynasty emperor in China

SHOGUN

supreme military commander of feudal Japan

CIVIL SERVICE EXAM

used in imperial China to select government officials based on merit, typically through rigorous examinations

HOW DID THE TANG AND SONG DYNASTIES SUPPORT A GOLDEN AGE IN CHINA?

Both dynasties had flourishing trade and had many technological and economic advances, as well as rich cultural literature, arts, and poetry

TANG: uniform and centralized government and enlarged civil service system, new land reform (broke up large agricultural holdings to redistribute land to peasants), trade flourished

SONG: controlled less land, economy expanded, new agricultural advancements (new strains of rice and improved irrigation methods), surpluses lead to more time for learning and arts

WHAT WERE THE POSITIVES AND NEGATIVES OF LIVING UNDER MONGOL RULE IN CHINA?

The Mongol rule in China brought increased trade and cultural exchange, but also resulted in heavy taxation and strict governance.

HOW WERE THE OPPORTUNITIES OF NOBLE WOMEN IN CHINA AND JAPAN DIFFERENT?

WOMEN IN CHINA: sometimes could run family affairs, but still subordinate to men, foot-binding, could never remarry and because part of her husband’s family

WOMEN IN JAPAN: noble women lived elaborately, Japanese women were forbidden to learn Chinese, but Heian women produced the most important works of Japanese literature

MANSA MUSA

extremely wealthy emperor of Mali, expanded borders and converted to Islam, influencing others to convert

ARTISAN

A skilled craftsperson often specializing in a particular trade

GOLD AND SALT TRADE

mineral wealth in Africa used for trading, main source of wealth and commerce

AMINA OF ZARIA

A powerful queen and military leader of the Hausa city-state of Zaria in present-day Nigeria, known for her expansionist campaigns and fortification of her city.

OBA

king that is both a political and a religious leader

ANIMISM

belief in spiritual beings and forces in nature

SWAHILI

language that resulted from the blend of cultures in East Africa

HOW IS THE CONTINENT OF AFRICA BOTH DIVERSE AND COMPLEX?

There was trading between many different cities and Africans practiced different religions like Christianity and Islam, and they spoke many different languages and dialects

HOW DOES TRADE CONTRIBUTE TO CULTURAL BLENDING?

people who spoke different languages like Bantu would mingle with people from Asia and Arabia, leading to inter-cultural marriages and the new language Swahili

WHAT FACTORS CAUSE A SOCIETY TO COLLAPSE?

overfarming, civil war, dwindling trade,

HOW DID GEOGRAPHY IMPACT THE WAY OF LIFE IN AFRICA?

when people migrated, depending on where they settled they had to adapt to local environment, settled in farming societies, so the way of life varied based on the place (e.g. the Khoisan people adapted to the harsh conditions of the Kalahari Desert by gathering roots and herbs and hunting small game)

DIPLOMACY

official discourse between countries aimed at resolving conflicts and fostering cooperation.

MITA

Incan system of mandatory public service in exchange for state-provided protection and food

WELFARE

System of support for individuals and families in need, often provided by the government.

CHINAMPA

artificial islands used for farming in the Aztec Empire

TRIBUTE

payment from conquered people

QUIPU

knotted, colored strings used for keeping records of population and crops

PACHACUTI

founder of the Incan empire

MONTEZUMA

Aztec ruler who faced the Spanish conquest led by Hernán Cortés.

WHAT WAS THE ROLE OF HUMAN SACRIFICE IN THE AZTEC AND INCAN SOCIETIES?

a religious practice believed to appease gods and ensure agricultural fertility

HOW DID THE AZTECS ENGINEER AN ADVANCED CITY IN TENOCHITLAN?

The Aztecs built Tenochtitlan on an island in lake Texcoco using sophisticated techniques such as chinampas (floating gardens), aqueducts, and a complex grid layout for urban planning.

WHAT TECHNOLOGY AND SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT DID THE INCA USE TO MANAGE A VAST EMPIRE?

They used centralized government with one supreme leader, and a chain of command reaching inter every village for collecting taxes and enforcing laws, officials used quipu to keep track of statistics

HOW DID THE MAYAN CALENDAR REGULATE ASPECTS OF DAILY LIFE?

the advanced 365 day solar calendar made sure certain ceremonies were performed at the right time, agricultural work was scheduled according to the seasons and religious events

GUILD

an association of craftsmen or merchants, each guild represents workers in one occupation (such as weavers, bakers, brewers, etc.)

PARLIAMENT

evolved from Great Council, English legislature with two house-body, makes laws

ESTATES GENERAL

set up by Philip IV, group of French representatives from three estates: clergy, nobles, and townspeople, was not successful in balancing royal power

MAGNA CARTA

“the great charter” , says that even the king must follow the law, people cannot be persecuted or taxed without reason, basically limiting the power of the king

WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR

First Norman king of England, he invaded in 1066 and established control after the Battle of Hastings by defeating Harold

JOAN OF ARC

Heroine of France, she played a key role in the Hundred Years' War by leading French troops to several victories against the English

CRUSADES

holy wars, waged by Christians to regain the Holy Land from Muslim control, starting in the 11th century. Also lead to increased trade and undermined serfdom

HUNDRED YEARS WAR

A series of conflicts fought between England and France from 1337 to 1453, primarily over claims to the French throne and territorial disputes.

BLACK DEATH

bubonic plague epidemic that spread through rats infected populations from many countries, social upheaval resulted as millions died

WHAT WERE THE MAJOR IMPACTS ON SOCIETY BY THE BLACK DEATH, THE CRUSADES, AND THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR?

The Black Death led to the deaths of millions, resulting in labor shortages, social upheaval, and significant changes in feudal structures.

The Crusades stimulated trade, cultural exchanges, and tensions between Christians and Muslims.

The Hundred Years War reinforced national identities in England and France, established a sense of nationalism, and brought advancements in military strategies and technologies.

WHAT DEVELOPMENTS OF THE HIGH MIDDLE AGES CHALLENGED THE FEUDAL SYSTEM AND LEAD TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN EUROPEAN CITIES?

agricultural advancements lead to surpluses, which encouraged specialized labor to emerge

The rise of a money-based economy effectively ended serfdom

WHAT DEVELOPMENTS OF THE HIGH MIDDLE AGES RESULTED IN EARLY STEPS TOWARDS SELF-GOVERNMENT?

charters for new towns, councils allowed participation in governing

HUMANISM

intellectual movement that focused on worldly subjects (grammar, poetry, history) over religious issues, believed that education should stimulate creativity

PATRON

supporters, customers

VERNACULAR

everyday language of ordinary people

INDULGENCES

a pardon for sins, sold by the Church to “buy your way out of sins”, leading to criticism of the corrupt Church

PURGATORY

a place where souls too impure to enter heaven make amends for their sins they committed

PREDESTINATION

idea that God has determined who would gain salvation and who wouldn’t, not based on what people do in their lives

THEOCRACY

government run by church leaders

INQUISITION

church court set up during the middle ages, to investigate and punish any beliefs or practices contrary to the established church doctrine.

MACHIAVELLI

prominent for literature, provided advice to rulers from personal experience and past knowledge, wrote The Prince

LEONARDO DA VINCI

artist, portrayed religious figures and well-known figures of the day, famous for Mona Lisa and sketches of flying machines and undersea boats

MICHELANGELO

portrayed biblical themes in art, known for the Pieta, David, and the sistine chapel

RAPHAEL

prominent painter, blended christian and catholic styles, known for painting the School of Athens and portrayals of the madonna

JOHANN GUTENBERG

printer, spread literature to large audiences, printed bible with movable metal type

HENRY VIII

English king, took control of the English Church

ELIZABETH I

Queen of England, ruled during the Elizabethan Era, used her skills to restore unity to England, made England a firmly Protestant nation, fostered the Renaissance

JOHN CALVIN

French priest, major figure in protestant reformation established Calvinism that emphasized predestination and a strict moral code like prohibiting elaborate clothing and dancing.

MARTIN LUTHER

German theologian, wrote 95 theses that criticized the Catholic Church's practices and sparked the Protestant Reformation. Founded Lutherism, believed everyone has equal access to God through faith and the Bible

IGNATIUS LOYOLA

Spanish priest who founded the Jesuit (the Society of Jesus), was determined to combat heresy and spread the Catholic faith

FERDINAND AND ISABELLA

monarchs of Spain who unified the country and sponsored Christopher Columbus's 1492 voyage, leading to the Spanish colonization of the Americas.

HOW DID THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD REFLECT A SHIFT IN CULTURAL VALUES?

People started to value worldly subjects and individualism over religious issues, which lead to many advancements in science, literature, and the arts

WHAT WAS THE IMPACT OF THE PRINTING PRESS ON THE RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION?

made books and information more affordable and accessible leading to a wider spread of ideas, literacy, and the questioning of traditional authority, significantly influencing religious reform.

HOW DID CHURCH REFORMERS DIFFER ON ISSUES OF SALVATION, AUTHORITY, AND INTERPRETATION OF THE BIBLE?

Church reformers had varying beliefs about:

the role of faith versus works in salvation

the source of religious authority (tradition vs. Scripture)

the interpretation of the Bible (individual interpretation vs. church authority)

HOW DID THE CATHOLIC CHURCH RESPOND TO THE THREAT TO ITS AUTHORITY OF THE REFORMATION?

launched the Jesuit, Pope Paul strengthened the Inquisition, and established the Council of Trent to reaffirm traditional catholic views

ENCOMIENDA

A system established by the Spanish crown that granted colonists the right to demand labor and tribute from indigenous peoples in the Americas, often leading to severe exploitation.

MESTIZO

A person of mixed European and Indigenous descent, resulting from the blending of cultures during colonization.

TRIANGULAR TRADE ROUTE

A historical trade system connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas, characterized by the exchange of enslaved people, raw materials, and manufactured goods.

ZHENG HE

A Chinese explorer during the Ming dynasty, promoted exploration, went on seven voyages to establish trade routes and diplomatic relations

ETHNOCENTRISM

The belief that one's own culture or ethnic group is superior to others