Unit 2: Political Institutions

Political institutions

Formal structures/organizations that make authoritative decisions (e.g., legislatures, executives, courts, bureaucracies, and often militaries/security services) and determine who makes policy, how rules are enforced, and how leaders are chosen/removed.

Regime

The rules of the political game—how leaders are selected, how power is distributed, and what limits exist on authority; institutions are the machinery that implements these rules.

Legitimacy

The degree to which people accept the state’s right to rule; affects stability and willingness to comply with decisions.

Rule of law

Laws are applied consistently, transparently, and predictably, including to powerful officials; central to meaningful rights and accountability.

Informal institutions (informal politics)

Unwritten practices that shape outcomes (e.g., patron-client networks, corruption, party bosses, clerical influence) even when formal rules look democratic.

De jure power

Power “on paper” in constitutions and laws (formal authority).

De facto power

Power in practice based on party control, military influence, patronage networks, or coercion; may differ from formal rules.

Constitution

Foundational rules establishing political institutions, distributing power, defining citizen rights, and outlining the relationship between people and the state.

Codified constitution

A written constitution in a single document (or core set of documents); examples: Mexico, Russia, Nigeria.

Uncodified constitution

Constitutional rules dispersed across statutes, conventions, and court decisions rather than one entrenched text; classic example: the United Kingdom.

Constitutionalism

The principle that government power should be limited by constitutional rules and enforced by institutions (often courts); emphasizes enforcement mechanisms, not just rights listed on paper.

Common law

Legal tradition relying heavily on precedent and judicial decisions; prominent in the UK and many countries influenced by Britain.

Civil law

Legal tradition emphasizing comprehensive legal codes; judges primarily apply written codes rather than creating law through precedent; common in Mexico and Russia.

Religious (Islamic) law

Legal system grounded in religious sources and interpretation; central in theocratic systems and shapes institutions and eligibility for office (notably Iran).

Customary law

Law based on community customs and traditions; used in many societies, including parts of Africa.

Mixed legal system

A legal system combining two or more traditions (e.g., civil + common + customary); real-world systems often blend elements.

Federalism

Division of sovereignty between national and regional governments with constitutionally protected regional powers; Mexico and Nigeria are federal.

Unitarism (unitary state)

Sovereignty concentrated at the national level; regional authority ultimately comes from the center (the UK is formally unitary).

Devolution

Delegation of powers to subnational regions by statute/political arrangement (e.g., Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland); unlike federalism, powers are granted by the center rather than constitutionally divided.

Judicial review

Court power to determine whether laws or government actions violate the constitution; only constrains power if courts are independent and rulings are obeyed.

Legislature

Institution responsible for making laws, representing citizens/groups, approving budgets, and overseeing the executive; can be a debating arena or a rubber-stamp body depending on regime context.

Representation

A legislature’s function of giving citizens and groups a voice in policymaking through elected (or selected) lawmakers.

Governability

Capacity to make decisions efficiently and implement policy; often in tension with broad representation.

Legislative oversight

A legislature’s monitoring and accountability function (e.g., questioning ministers, investigations, committee scrutiny, budget leverage).

Unicameral legislature

A legislature with one chamber (single house).

Bicameral legislature

A legislature with two chambers, often designed to represent different interests (e.g., population vs. regions); bicameralism does not automatically create strong checks if a dominant party controls both chambers.

Parliamentary sovereignty

UK principle that Parliament is the supreme legal authority and can create or end laws; shapes how constitutional limits work in practice.

House of Commons

UK lower chamber with 650 elected MPs chosen by first-past-the-post; dominant chamber that passes laws and scrutinizes government, and typically supplies the Prime Minister (leader of the largest party).

House of Lords

UK upper chamber (~800 members), largely appointed; scrutinizes and revises legislation and can delay bills but generally cannot permanently veto them.

Royal assent

Formal approval by the UK monarch that turns a bill into law; part of a largely ceremonial constitutional monarchy role.

Federal Assembly (Russia)

Russia’s bicameral legislature consisting of the State Duma (lower house) and Federation Council (upper house); formally makes laws but often analyzed as influenced by executive dominance.

State Duma

Russia’s lower house with 450 members elected for five-year terms; passes legislation and approves the budget; president can veto and under certain conditions dissolve the Duma.

Federation Council

Russia’s upper house with 170 members representing regions; reviews/approves legislation passed by the State Duma.

Majles (Islamic Consultative Assembly)

Iran’s elected unicameral legislature with 290 members elected every four years; passes laws and supervises the government but is constrained by unelected oversight bodies.

Guardian Council

Iranian 12-member unelected body reviewing legislation for compatibility with Islam and the constitution; 6 clerics appointed by the Supreme Leader and 6 jurists selected through a process involving the judiciary and legislature.

National People’s Congress (NPC)

China’s highest organ of state power in a one-party context; formally enacts laws, amends the constitution, and supervises state institutions; deputies serve five-year terms and the NPC meets annually (commonly in March).

NPC Standing Committee

China’s body that carries out NPC decisions between sessions; interprets laws, issues directives, and supervises government and judiciary when the full NPC is not in session.

National Assembly (Nigeria)

Nigeria’s bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate (109) and House of Representatives (360); bills pass through three readings in each chamber and go to the president for assent, with a possible two-thirds override.

Vote of no confidence

Parliamentary mechanism by which the legislature can force the prime minister and cabinet to resign; a key executive-accountability tool in parliamentary systems like the UK.

Impeachment

Formal process for removing a president (or other officials) in presidential systems; contrasts with parliamentary removal via no-confidence votes.

Parliamentary system

System where executive power rests with a prime minister/cabinet drawn from and accountable to parliament; government depends on legislative confidence and can be removed by a vote of no confidence (e.g., UK).

Presidential system

System where a directly elected president is both head of state and head of government; legislature is separate/co-equal and removal typically requires impeachment (e.g., Mexico, Nigeria).

Semi-presidential system

System splitting executive power between a president (head of state) and a prime minister (head of government); real balance depends on constitution and politics (often cited: Russia).

Head of state

Symbolic and/or constitutional representative of the country (may be ceremonial or powerful); UK monarch is head of state.

Head of government

Leader who runs day-to-day policy and the executive branch; UK prime minister is head of government.

Executive term limits

Rules capping how long an executive can serve, intended to prevent power concentration; patterns vary (e.g., Nigeria two 4-year terms; Russia two consecutive 6-year terms with a 2020 reset; China removed presidential limits in 2018).

Sexenio

Mexico’s single six-year presidential term with no re-election, introduced in 1934 to prevent personalist power concentration.

Bureaucracy

Network of agencies/officials that administer public policy (taxes, schools, regulation, elections, healthcare) and shapes what policy is possible through expertise and implementation capacity.

Patronage (patronage-based bureaucracy)

Distribution of jobs/contracts through political loyalty or personal networks (clientelism), often undermining capacity and increasing corruption compared with merit-based hiring.

Judicial independence

Judges’ ability to decide cases based on law without improper political pressure; depends on appointment rules, tenure/removal protections, budget control, and whether other actors obey court decisions.