Comprehensive Science Review

A comprehensive set of flashcards covering Anatomy and Physiology, Biology, Chemistry, and the Scientific Method based on the lecture transcript.

How is the body organized in a hierarchy from the basic unit of matter to a living being?

Atoms, Molecules, Cells, Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, and Organism.

What are the four main types of tissues in the human body?

Epithelial Tissue, Connective Tissue, Muscle Tissue, and Nervous Tissue.

How does the diaphragm move during inhalation and exhalation?

During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and the chest expands; during exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes and the chest contracts.

What are the four chambers of the heart?

Right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, and left ventricle.

In which part of the gastrointestinal system does the majority of nutrient absorption occur?

The small intestine (specifically the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum).

What are the primary male and female sex hormones involved in reproductive development and function?

Testosterone (male) and Estrogen and Progesterone (female).

What is the difference between Innate and Adaptive immunity?

Innate Immunity is the non-specific first line of defense (e.g., skin, mucus membranes), while Adaptive Immunity is specific, develops over time, and involves lymphocytes like $B$ cells and $T$ cells.

What is the function of the Genitourinary (Urinary) System?

Filtration of blood, removal of metabolic wastes, and regulation of fluid and electrolyte balance.

What theory explains how muscle contraction occurs via actin and myosin proteins?

The sliding filament theory.

What are the three core principles of Cell Theory?

All living things are made of cells, cells are the basic unit of life, and new cells arise from pre-existing cells.

What are the functions of the Mitochondria and the Ribosomes?

Mitochondria are the site of cellular respiration ($ATP$ production), and Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis.

Define osmosis and facilitated diffusion.

Osmosis is the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane; facilitated diffusion is passive transport with the help of membrane proteins.

What are the four key macromolecules (biomolecules) essential for life?

Carbohydrates, Lipids (Fats), Proteins, and Nucleic Acids.

What are the nitrogenous base pairing rules in a $DNA$ double helix?

Adenine ($A$) pairs with Thymine ($T$), and Cytosine ($C$) pairs with Guanine ($G$).

What is the main difference between Mitosis and Meiosis?

Mitosis results in two identical daughter cells for growth and repair; Meiosis results in four genetically different haploid daughter cells (gametes) for sexual reproduction.

Define Genotype and Phenotype.

Genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism, while Phenotype refers to the observable characteristics.

How does a catalyst affect a chemical reaction?

It speeds up the rate of reaction without being consumed by lowering the activation energy.

Why must chemical equations be balanced?

To obey the law of conservation of mass, which states that matter cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.

What are the formulas for calculating concentration by mass and volume?

Percent by Mass = (\text{mass of solute} / \text{mass of solution}) \times 100\text{%}; Percent by Volume = (\text{volume of solute} / \text{volume of solution}) \times 100\text{%}.

Distinguish between Ionic and Covalent bonds.

Ionic bonds are formed by the transfer of electrons between atoms (metals and nonmetals); Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of electrons (between nonmetals).

What are the terms for phase changes from solid to gas and gas to solid?

Solid to gas is Sublimation; gas to solid is Deposition.

What characterizes an acid versus a base according to the $pH$ scale?

Acids donate hydrogen ions ($H^+$) and have a $pH < 7$; Bases accept hydrogen ions ($H^+$) or donate hydroxide ions ($OH^-$) and have a $pH > 7$.

Describe a Combustion reaction.

A rapid reaction between a substance and an oxidant (usually oxygen) that produces heat and light, often involving a hydrocarbon reacting with $O_2$ to produce $CO_2$ and $H_2O$.

How do Atomic Radius and Electronegativity trend across a period on the periodic table?

Atomic Radius generally decreases across a period, while Electronegativity generally increases across a period.

What is the difference between an Independent Variable and a Dependent Variable?

The Independent Variable is manipulated by the researcher (the cause), while the Dependent Variable is measured in response (the effect).

Compare Observation and Inference.

An Observation is a direct sensory perception or measurement; an Inference is a conclusion or interpretation based on observations and prior knowledge.

Distinguish between Precision and Accuracy in scientific measurement.

Precision is how close repeated measurements are to each other (reproducibility); Accuracy is how close a measurement is to the true or accepted value.

How is Avogadro's number expressed in scientific notation?

$6.02 \times 10^{23}$.