Final Information

What is an illusory correlation?

A perceived connection between two variables that does not exist in reality

Which mental shortcut causes people to fear plane crashes more than car crashes, despite statistics? (1)

The availability heuristic (1)

A rule of thumb that aids in problem-solving, but is prone to errors is known as a(n) _____.

Heuristic

How does an algorithm differ from a heuristic in problem-solving?

One explores every possible solution until the correct one is found, whereas the other uses shortcuts

Making frequency judgments based on how easily examples come to mind is the definition of the _____. (2)

Availability heuristic (2)

Why do people mistakenly believe English words starting with ‘K’ are more common than words with ‘K’ as the third letter?

Our mental dictionary is organized by the first letter, making those examples easier to retrieve

What is the actual success rate of criminals using the insanity defense?

Only about 25% of the 1% of total criminals who attempt it are successful

The tendency to believe that everyone else agrees with our own opinions or behaviors is the _____. (1)

False consensus affect (1)

What cognitive bias involves overestimating personal factors and underestimating situational factors when judging others? (1)

The fundamental attribution error (1)

In the ‘quizmaster study,’ why did observers rate questioners as more knowledgeable than contestants?

The attributed the performance of questioners to intelligence rather than their situational advantage

According to perspective theory, why do we commit the fundamental attribution error?

We see the person’s actions clearly, but cannot see their internal state or the full extent of their situation

The ‘I knew it all along’ phenomenon after an event has occurred is called _____. (1)

Hindsight bias (1)

How does hindsight bias impact students’ perception of study material?

Passively reading material makes it seem obvious and easily mastered, creating a false sense of security

Judging the quality of a past decision based on its eventual result rather than the information available at the time is _____. (1)

Outcome bias (1)

Why is it problematic to follow the ‘success plan’ of college dropouts like Mark Zuckerberg?

Individual anecdotes ignore the statistical reality that higher education generally correlates with higher income

What does it mean for causes to be ‘not mutually exclusive?’

Multiple explanations for an event can be true at the same time

The error of assuming only two possibilities exist when there are actually more is a(n) _____.

False dichotomy

What is the concept of weighted causes?

The principle that multiple causes contribute to an effect with varying degrees of importance

In causal modeling, how is the strength of a relationship visually represented in a path diagram?

The weight is indicated by the numerical value associated with the arrow connecting the cause to the effect

When the combined effect of two variables is different from the sum of their individual parts in general, it is called a(n) _____. (1)

Interaction (1)

How did THC and morphine behave in the pain relief study? (They were used together)

They interacted to produce much higher pain relief than the sum of their individual effects

Why is the combination of statins and grapefruit juice considered an interaction?

Grapefruit blocks the enzyme that regulates the drug, making a safe dose potentially toxic

If the lines on a graph representing two variables are parallel, what does this indicate about their relationship?

There’s no interaction between the variables

What is a ‘synergistic’ or ‘hyperadditive’ effect in an interaction?

The total effect of combining causes is significantly greater than the sum of their individual influences

That ‘it depends’ rule is a simple way to identify the presence of a(n) ____. (2)

Interaction (2)

What is the concept of reliability?

When you get the same or very similar results time and time again

What is the threshold for a ‘high’ correlation to establish strong reliability?

A correlation coefficient of .8 or higher

Which type of reliability measures the degree of agreement between different people scoring the same test?

Inter-rater

_____ reliability is established by giving the same test to the same group at two different time points.

Test-retest

What is the concept of validity?

When the test actually measures what you say it will

Why is measuring head circumference for intelligence a reliable but invalid method?

The measurement is consistent every time, but it does not accurately represent the concept of intelligence

Which form of validity assesses how well a test forecasts a specific future outcome, like the SAT predicting college GPA?

Predictive validity

What is the primary danger of using social media quizzes for mental health insights?

The lack established for liability and validity, and are not legitimate diagnostic tools

Active learning techniques are superior to passive techniques like highlighting because they require _____.

Effortful retrieval and engagement with the material

The study techniques that involves explaining a concept in simple terms as if to a child is the _____.

Feynman technique

What are the four steps of the Feynman technique?

Choose a concept

Explain and simplify

Identify knowledge gaps

Refine the explanation

The process of asking ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions to connect information is called _____.

Elaborative interrogation

How can AI tools be used for active rather than passive studying?

By having it generate quizzes or acting as a tutor to critique your explanations

What is the primary risk of relying solely on AI generated studying summaries?

AI can be inaccurate, misleading, or overemphasize minor details over main points

In the Milgram study, what percentage of the woman actually administered the fatal shock?

About the same percentage as the men

How does internal consistency measure reliability?

It checks if different parts of the same test yield similar results for the same concept

The belief that immigrants commit more crime when the reverse is true is an example of a(n) _____.

Illusory correlation

Why are car accidents less available to our memories than plane crashes?

One type of accidents are more common and rarely make international news, whereas the other are rare and highly publicized

What is declarative knowledge?

Involves facts and information

What is procedural knowledge?

Involve how to perform tasks

Which bias describes the tendency to assume a persons failure is due to their character rather than their circumstances? (2)

Fundamental attribution error (2)

A researcher finds that a personality test gives different results every time a person takes it. This test lacks _____.

Reliability

What is construct validity?

The degree to which a test truly assesses the psychological concept it is intended to measure (like PTSD and anxiety)

In a statistical graph, what does a difference in the slopes of the lines typically signify?

The presence of an interaction between the variables

How does elaborative interrogation help build memory?

It forces the learner to remember how different pieces of information fit together to form a complete answer

Which study method involves writing as much possible about a topic with closed notes and then checking for errors?

Self-testing

In the context of the fundamental attribution error, how do we usually view our own behavior differently than others behavior?

We attribute our own behavior to the situation, but others behavior to their character

Why might a high value college list be considered invalid by a student?

If the metrics used to define value do not match the students actual goals or experience

What is additive influence in causation?

When two causes contribute to an outcome independently, with their effects simply summing together

The phenomenon where a persons behavior changes depending on the month of the year is an example of a(n) _____. (3)

Interaction (3)

If a test claims to measure anxiety, but actually measures general stress, it has poor _____.

Construct validity

Why is it useful to upload the textbook chapters and class notes to an AI tool?

To identify discrepancies between the text and the lecture or to find gaps in your notes

What does the availability heuristic suggest about our estimation of the US Muslim population?

People overestimate the percentage due to memorable media examples (guessing 17% versus the actual 1%)

The tendency to find a narrative that makes a past event seem inevitable is a hallmark of _____. (2)

Hindsight bias (2)

What is the illusion of control in the context of driving versus flying?

The false belief that one can personally avoid a car accident, making driving feel safer than flying

When judges evaluate a CEO’s risky decision only after the company goes bankrupt, they are likely suffering from _____. (2)

Outcome bias (2)

In a multicausal model, can two causes for the same event both be true?

Yes, they are often not mutually exclusive

What is active studying?

Engaging in a back-and-forth conversation or testing yourself rather than just reading and highlighting

Why is interrater reliability essential for research assistance in a psychology lab?

It ensures that different observers record data consistently, making their ratings interchangeable

If you are a gun owner and assume most Americans oppose gun control, you are likely experiencing the _____. (2)

False consensus effect (2)

What is the Texas sharpshooter fallacy related to?

Hindsight bias and the tendency to make up narratives to explain facts after they occur

True or false: suicide is more common among teenagers than among people age 65+

False

What is the primary purpose of standardized test like the SAT regarding validity?

To demonstrate predictive validity for college performance

In the Feynman technique, what should you do after identifying gaps in your knowledge?

Return to the source material to relearn the missing information

How does content validity differ from predictive validity?

One checks if the test covers the right material while the other checks if it forecasts outcomes

What happens in the false dichotomy?

A complex situation is oversimplified into only two mutually exclusive choices

Why does the availability heuristic lead to biased opinions on immigration?

Overestimating population percentages of certain groups can lead to fear based policy preferences

Which study technique involves making flashcards and rewriting notes from memory?

Active studying, specifically self testing

What is the relationship between heuristics and algorithmic computing?

Computers use algorithms to process all solutions rapidly, while humans use heuristics to save time despite potential errors