AP Psych UNIT 4

Socialization :)

Social Psychology

The study of how social influence, social perception, and social interaction influence individual & group behavior.

Cognitive Load

The amount of information a person is thinking about. The more information we have to process, the more likely we are to use mental shortcuts and heuristics.

Explanatory Styles

A person’s habitual way of interpreting the good and bad things that happen in our lives. Its like a personal lens that colors our perception of the world. (Includes Optimism and Pessimism).

Permanence, Pervasiveness, and Personalization

What three dimensions of explanatory style did Martin Seligman identify to characterize optimism/pessimism?

Permanence in Optimism

Positives will last, while negatives are only temporary.

Permanence in Pessimism

Positives/good fortune won’t last, while negatives will.

Pervasiveness in Optimism

Positive experiences encourage the feeling that life is great, while negative ones are seen as just one isolated issue.

Pervasiveness in Pessimism

Positive experiences are seen as rare and unlikely, while negative ones are seen to affect all aspects of your life created a general feeling of displeasure with life.

Personalization in Optimism

Positives/successes encourage the feeling of a job well-done, while negatives/”failures” are a reminder to not take it personally, and consider how external factors may have contributed.

Personalization in Pessimism

Positives/successes are seen as random luck, while negatives/failures are entirely the fault of your short-comings and generate self-blame.

Locus of Control

The extent to which individuals believe they can control events affecting them. There is the “internal” perspective and the “external” perspective.

Internal Locus of Control

The active perspective of locus of control; the belief that one’s actions and decisions directly impact outcomes. “I make things happen.” Is associated with higher acheivement, better stress managment, and greater independence.

External Locus of Control

The passive perspective of locus of control; the belief that outcomes are determined by outside forces (fate, luck, powerful others). “Things happen to me.” Associated with higher learned helplessness, greater risk of anxiety/depression.

The Person Perception

How we form impressions of ourselves & others, including attributions of behavior.

Attribution Theory

The theory that we explain someon’s behavior by crediting either the situation (a situational attribution) or the person’s persons stable, enduring traits (a dispositional attribution).

Situational Attributions

Characteristics influenced by external factors, including enviroment, circumstances, luck, other people, and context.

Dispositional Attributions

Characteristics influenced by internal factors, including personality traits, abilities, and motivations.

Fundamental Attribution Error

Used mainly when we interpret others; the tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.

Actor-Observer Bias

Used mainly when we compare ourselves with others; the tendency for those acting in a situation to attribute their behavior to external causes, but for observers to attribute otehrs’ behavior to internal causes. Is intended to protect self-esteem, and contributes to “self-serving bias” (which focuses on our explanations for other’s behavior)---for example: “I aced the test because I’m smart; I failed the test because the teacher is unfair.”

Self-Serving Bias

A readiness to perceive ourselves favorably.

If we succeed or exceed what we see, self-esteem rises; if we fall short of what we see, self-esteem decreases. We may also feel inspired or elevated by people’s online success, but the decieving part is its only a highlight collection, which if were not concious of, can harm our self-concept.

How does social comparison inflluence our perception of ourselves and others?

Prejudice

An unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. It is a mix of negative beliefs or stereotypes, which influence negative emotions (hostility/fear), creating a predisposition to discriminate.

Discrimination

To act in negative and unjustifiable ways towards a group and its members. It is an action based on prejudice.

Implicit Prejudice

Hidden bias; unthinking, below our awareness of how our attitudes influence our behavior.

Explicit Prejudice

A concious feeling or belief, a concious bias; in our radar, aware of it.

Stereotypes

An often over-generalized and over-simplified (sometimes accurate, sometimes not) belief about a group of people. Its a mental shortcut to reduce your cognitive load, but is often problematic.

Just-World Phenomenon

The tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get. Can lead to victim blaming.

Victim Blaming

The just-world phenomenon often leads poeple to blame victims for their misfortune. For example, “do the circumstances of poverty breed a higher crime rate? If so, that higher crime rate may be used to justify discrimination against those who live in poverty.”

In-Group

The “us”; people with whom we share a common identity.

In-Group Bias

The tendency to favor our own group (the “in-group).

Out-Group

The “them”; those percieved as different or apart from our in-group.

Out-Group Bias (Homogeneity Bias)

The tendency to think everyone in the “out-group” is the same. That “they’re all like that.”

Scapegoat Theory

The thoery that prejudice offers an outlet for anger / negative emotions when things go wrong by providing someone to blame.

Other-Race Effect

The tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the “cross-race effect” and the “own-race bias.”

Attitude

Feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to resopnd in a particular way to objects, people, and events.

Beliefs lead to feelings/attitudes which lead to actions. There is a stronger connection between attitude and action when there are less external factors; external factors can override our attitudes and influence our actions. When our attitude towards something is stable, so is our behavior; vice versa, we more strongly believe in what we’ve stood up for.

How do attitudes and actions interact?

Foot-in-the-door Phenomenon

The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

Door-in-the-face Phenomenon

Approaching someone with an unreasonable request, then, after you get turned down, following up with a moderate request makes it more acceptable and likely to be allowed.

Role

A set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

Persuasion

Changing people’s attitude, which potentially influences their actions.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

When we actively process a message and mentally elaborate on it, we more often retain it.

Central Route Persuasion, and Peripheral Route Persuasion

What are the two forms of persuasion in the elaboration likelihood model?

Central Route Persuasion

Occurs when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguements. The byproduct of a message that aims to trigger careful thinking.

Peripheral Route Persuasion

Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as the speaker’s attractiveness. The byproduct of a message that uses attention-cues to trigger speedy, emotion-based judgement. Can include the “halo-effect” from beautiful or famous people. Ads also use heart-tugging imagery to evoke emotion/empathy.

At first, when you adopt a new role, you follow the norms, but feel phony, like youre acting. Over time, though, it becomes you, and influences you as a person.

How do roles affect attitude?

Leon Festinger’s Cognitive Dissonance Theory

The thoery that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognition) are inconsistent. For exmaple, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we an reduct the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes (or vice versa). For example, if you don’t believe in cheating, but you just did, you may explain it away with “I had to do this because the teacher is unfair.”

Social Situation

A concept that emphasizes the impact of the social setting on behavior and mental processes, including physical enviromental, presence of others, social norms, expectations, and roles.

Conformity

Adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. Two types include suggestibility and mimicry.

Suggestibility

A form of conformity; the tendency of individuals to accept and incorporate suggestions or misleading information into their own memories or beliefs.

People follow social norms, and imitate behavior they view in public or online.

How does society promote conformity?

Norms

A society’s understood rules for accepted and expected behavior. Prescribed “proper” behavior in individual & social situtations. There are both cultural and developmental examples.

Social Scripts

A component of social norms; a culturally modeled cognitive guide for how to behave in specific, familiar social situations. For example, waiting in line, or being quiet in a library.

Stanford Prison Experiment

An experiment in which 24 white male college students were assigned “prisoner” or “guard” roles; the experiment was cut short to to pathological behavior. It examines situational forces versus disposition; shows how situational factors (ex. role playing) can push good people to make evil decisions, and confirmed that social rules can shape behavior. It is also an exmaple of deindividuation through a role that loosens responsibility and glasses that hide identity.

Social Contagion

The spontaneous spread of behaviors (or emotions or ideas) through a group. Ex. yawning, panic.

Automatic Mimicry (Chameleon Effect)

A more specific form of social contaigion; the unconscious imitation of anothers’ specific gestures, postures, or facial expressions, intended to foster connection. Ex. rubbing face, lean or posture a certain way, fidgeting. We even take on the emotional tones of those around us through these guestures and others such as tones and grammar; just hearing someone reading a neutral text in a sad tone creates mood contaigion in listeners. This allows for empathy and mood linkage (the sharing of moods).

Solomon Asch’s Conformity Experiment

A study in which a group of 6 students are given a standard line, line a, line b, and line c, and must decide which lettered line is identical to the standard line. It is obvious each time, but on round 3 the first 5 students (actually confederates) answer incorrectly, and the 6th person wavers, struggling to decide if they should conform or choose the line they think is correct. Greater than ⅓ of the participants conformed.

Normative Social Influence

Influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval. “Social norms” make people afraid not to conform.

Informational Social Influence

Influence resulting from a person’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality. Stems from a person’s desire to be right, and the belief that others’ have more accurate knowledge. For example, a positive product review encourages people to buy it.

When feeling incompetent, or insecure. When in a group of 3 or more, especially when others agree, or when we admire them, or know they are observing our behavior. When we have not made prior commitment to a response. When from a culture that encourages respect for social standards.

What factors make people more likely to conform?

Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Experiment

An experiment in which, given a “teacher” role, participants were ordered by the experimenter to shock the “student” (a confederate) behind the wall if they answered questions wrong. Despite cries of pain, most “teachers” obeyed the experimenter’s commands to continue. Identified several factors that encourage obedience.

Obedience is more likely when the order-giver is close at hand and is perceived to be legitimate authority, when a powerful or prestigious institution supports the authority figure, when a victim is depersonalized or at a distance, and when there is no role model for defiance.

What factors make people more likely to obey orders?

Defiance is more likely when there is a role model, or the individual or someone they know has been in the opposite position (the “student” in the experiment), or when authority is afar.

What factors make people more likely to defy orders?

Conformity is among peers, and means you voluntarily imitate your group due to implicit pressure. Obedience is under an authority figure, and means you act under explicitly pressure, and at least perceive your actions as forced.

Clarify the difference between conformity versus obedience/compliance.

Personal Control

The power of the individual, which interacts with social control.

Social Control

the power of the situation, which interacts with personal control.

Minority Influence

The power of 1 or 2 individuals to sway majorities. This is strongest when firm, confident, and committed. An example of this is Rosa Parks igniting civil rights movement.

Social Facilitation, Social Impairment/Inhibition

What are two terms that discuss how the presence of others influence our actions?

Social Facilitation

In the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks. (Aka, it strengthens our most likely response).

Social Impairment/Inhibition

The tendency for individuals to perform worse or become less likely to act out in front of others compared to when they’re alone.

Social Loafing, Bystander Effect, and Deindividuation.

What are three examples of the diffusion of responsibility created by the presence of others?

Social Loafing

The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable. Can lead to the sucker effect.

The Sucker Effect

While everyone goofs off, everyone withholds effort to not be the “sucker” who does all the word.

Diffusion of Responsibility

A concept where individuals feel less responsible for taking action or making decisions when they are part of a group because they assume someone else will take on the responsibility.

Bystander Effect

Phenomenon where individuals are less likely to ffer help to a victim when other poeple are present. (note, this can also refer to social loafing). An example of this is the Kitty Genovese murder case, where there were several witnesses but no one stepped in.

Deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. We feel like we won’t be detected or held accountable. The group mentality is a component of mob mentality. Examples of this are the Glenbrook hazing case, and the Stanford Prison experiment.

Group Polarization, Groupthink

What are two examples of how group interaction can influence our behavior?

Group Polarization

The enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclination through discussion within the group. “Like minds polarize”; the beliefs and attitudes we bring to a group grow stronger as we discuss with like-minded people. For example, low-prejudice students become even more accepting while discussing—higher-prejudice students who discuss become more prejudiced.

Groupthink

The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistical appraisal of alternatives. For example, if advisors wantt o maintain a high group morale, they may suppress or self-censor views that dissent the president’s, leading to a poor decision/action. To counter this, two heads are often better than one (“great minds often don’t think alike”).

Individualism, Collectivism, Tight Culture, Loose Culture

What are four terms that discuss how culture affects our behavior?

Individualism

A cultural belief system; situations focus on “me” as an independent, separate self. More common in western european and english-speaking countries.

Collectivism

A cultural belief system; situations focus on “we”, on meeting group standards and accommodating others. More common in asian, african, and latin american countries.

Tight Culture

A place/culture with clearly defined and reliably imposed norms.

Loose Culture

A place/culture with flexible and informal norms.

Altruism

The unselfish reguard for the welfare of others. Behavior motivated by the goal of increasing someone else’s welfare, even at a potential cost or risk to oneself. It is a prosocial behavior.

“Helpful people are also happy people.” Helping others relieves negative feeling and promotes positive feelings through the release of endorphins.

What are some possible biological rewards of altruism?

Person in need appears deserving, is similar to us, and/or is a woman. We just observed someone being helpful, we are not in a hurry, we are in a small town or rural area, we are feeling guilty, we are focused on others (not preoccupied), and/or we are ina good mood.

When are people most likely to provide help?

Social Exchange Theory

The theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs. For example, deciding whether to donate blood or not.

Reciprocity Norm

An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them. Give & take—it means your good action will come back to you.

Social-Responsibility Norm

The belief that individuals have a moral obligation to act in ways that benefit society and contribute to the collective well-being even when there’s no direct personal gain. (“That we should help those who need it—young children & others who cant give as much as they receive—even if cost outweighs benefits”).

Social Traps

A situation where individuals or a group pursue short-term, seemingly self-interested actions, leading to long-term, negative consequences for everyone involved. Immediate benefits outweigh long-term benefits. We make choices at the detriment of our own interests. For example, the tragedy of the commons (think about the fish pond analogy).

Smoke in the room, conformity. Seizure, altruism. Bystander effect.

Darley and Latané did both the ______ study (which studied ______) and the ______ study (which studied ______). Both studied the ______.

Industrial-Organizational (I-O) Psychology

A form of psychology that applies psychological principles and scientific research to the workplace to enhance employee well-being, safety, and productivity.

Muzafer Sherif Robbers Cave Experiement

A 1954 experiment which demonstrated that intergroup conflict (prejudice/hostility) arises from competition over limited resources, but can be reduced through superordinate goals (high-level, shared objectives) requiring cooperation. The study involved 22 boys divided into two groups, the "Eagles" and "Rattlers," at a summer camp. Explored out-group bias, and allowed the experimenter to coin Realistic Conflict Theory.

Realistic Conflict Theory

A theory on how out-group bias and hostility can arise as a result of conflicting goals and competition over limited resources, but collaborative efforts towards a goal can unite people. An example is the Robbers Cave Experiment.

(these terms are explored further in the following modules, this is just the exact definition).

Personality

An individual’s characteristic, unique, and persistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving.

Type A vs Type B

Type A often feel time pressure, easily angered, competitive and ambitious, work hard and play hard, more prone to heart disease than rest of population. Type B is more relaxed and easygoing. Some people fit into neitiher.

Psychoanalytic Theory

1. Freud’s theory that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts. 2. Freud’s theraputic technique in which people’s free associations, resistances, deams, etc. and the analysis of them, released repressed feelings/unconcious tensions, and offered insight.

Psychodynamic Theory

Rooted in Freud’s work, but is a more modern theory; views personality with a focus on the unconscious mind and the importance of childhood experiences (and defense mechanisms). Considers how the interplay between our conscious and unconscious motives/conflicts shapes our personality. ISSS: shorter, more flexible, focuses on present day social context, and uses more face-to-face.

Id (unconsious, animalistic), ego (partially conscious, satisfies id), superego (conscoius, judgement & morality)

What are the parts of personality within the subconscious & conscious mind?