HBS: Unit 4 Study Guide (BASIC)

What are the main functions of the urinary system?

Remove metabolic wastes, produce urine, balance water/electrolytes, regulate blood pressure, maintain pH, maintain homeostasis

What do the kidneys do?

Filter blood, remove waste, balance water/salts/pH, and form urine

What is the function of the ureters?

Carry urine from kidneys to bladder

What is the function of the bladder?

Stores urine until release

What is the function of the urethra?

Carries urine out of the body

What is the functional unit of the kidney?

The nephron

What happens in the glomerulus?

Filtration of blood

What does Bowman’s capsule do?

Collects filtrate from the glomerulus

What is the main function of the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)?

Reabsorption of glucose, amino acids, water, and salts

What is the function of the loop of Henle?

Reabsorbs water and salts; helps concentrate urine

What occurs in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT)?

Secretion and fine-tuning of pH/salt balance

What is filtration?

Movement of small substances from blood into nephron

What is reabsorption?

Movement of useful substances from nephron back into blood

What is secretion?

Movement of substances from blood into nephron

What should healthy urine NOT contain?

Glucose, blood cells, large proteins, bacteria

What does GFR stand for?

Glomerular filtration rate

What is normal GFR?

About 120 mL/min

Why don’t humans urinate 172.8 L/day?

Most water and useful solutes are reabsorbed

What does eGFR measure?

Kidney function

When may dialysis begin?

eGFR less than 20

When may kidney transplant evaluation begin?

eGFR less than 15

What does uACR measure?

Urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio

What can albumin in urine indicate?

Kidney damage

What is CKD?

Chronic kidney disease

What are symptoms of CKD?

Fatigue, swelling, nausea, hypertension, appetite loss

What are kidney stones?

Hard deposits made of minerals and salts in kidneys

What are common causes of kidney stones?

Dehydration, oxalates, uric acid, sodium, obesity

What is the most common kidney stone type?

Calcium oxalate stones

What are uric acid stones linked to?

Dehydration, high-protein diet, gout

What is PKD?

Polycystic kidney disease

What causes PKD?

Mutated PKD gene inheritance or spontaneous mutation

What are symptoms of PKD?

High blood pressure, kidney stones, blood in urine, excessive urination, back pain

What are treatments for PKD?

Dialysis, transplant, blood pressure monitoring, genetic counseling

What is ADPKD?

Adult dominant polycystic kidney disease

What is ARPKD?

Severe childhood form of PKD

What are the three parts of urinalysis?

Macroscopic, chemical, microscopic

What does macroscopic urinalysis examine?

Color (Normal=Shades of yellow from straw-amber, Abnormal=colorless, dark yellow, other colors)

Clarity (Normal=clear, Abnormal=hazy, cloudy, turbid)

What is the normal urine pH range?

4.6 to 8.0

What is the normal urine specific gravity range?

1.005 to 1.030

What may glucose in urine indicate?

Diabetes mellitus

What may protein in urine indicate?

Kidney damage

What may ketones in urine indicate?

Starvation or uncontrolled diabetes

What may RBCs in urine indicate?

Kidney stones, trauma, kidney disease

What do WBCs and bacteria in urine suggest?

Infection

What do restriction enzymes do?

Cut DNA at specific sequences

Which direction does DNA move in gel electrophoresis?

Toward the positive electrode

Why does DNA move toward the positive electrode?

DNA is negatively charged

Which DNA fragments move farther?

Smaller fragments

What is the purpose of a DNA ladder?

Estimate DNA fragment sizes

What factors are important for kidney transplant matching?

Blood type, HLA matching, crossmatch, PRA score

What are HLA antigens?

Proteins helping immune system identify self

Which blood type is the universal donor?

O

Which blood type is the universal recipient?

AB

What are the main functions of the digestive system?

Digestion, nutrient absorption, water absorption, waste removal

What is the digestive tract pathway?

Oral cavity to pharynx to esophagus to stomach to duodenum to jejunum to ileum to large intestine to rectum to anus

What does the stomach do?

Churns food and begins protein digestion

What is the function of the liver?

Produces bile

What is the function of the gallbladder?

Stores and releases bile

What is the function of the pancreas?

Secretes digestive enzymes

What does amylase break down?

Carbohydrates

What does lipase break down?

Lipids/fats

What does pepsin break down?

Proteins

What causes celiac disease?

Immune response to gluten damaging villi

What causes GERD?

Weak lower esophageal sphincter causing acid reflux

What causes peptic ulcers?

H. pylori or NSAID use

What causes Crohn’s disease?

Immune response involving gut bacteria

What causes Whipple’s disease?

Tropheryma whipplei bacterial infection

What is dysbiosis?

Imbalance of gut microbiome

What can cause dysbiosis?

Antibiotics, stress, poor diet, chronic illness

What is the gut-brain axis?

Connection between gut microbiome and mental health

What histology feature identifies the stomach?

Gastric pits/glands

What histology feature identifies the duodenum?

Villi and mucosa

What histology feature identifies the pancreas?

Ducts and Islets of Langerhans

What histology feature identifies the colon?

Columnar epithelium and mucosa

Why can narrowed renal arteries increase blood pressure?

Reduced kidney blood flow activates RAAS causing fluid retention and increased blood pressure

How does the nervous system help regulate water balance?

Controls thirst and ADH release

Why are medical diagrams/models important?

They simplify complex anatomy and disease concepts

Conditions that can cause kidney problems:

• Congestive heart failure

• Injury to glomerulus or tubules from drugs, heavy metals, and viral infections.

• Diabetes, hypertension, and kidney stones

Specific Gravity

A measure of the concentration of solutes in urine, indicating kidney function.

More concentrated=higher urine specific gravity (usually as a result from dehydration)

Microscopic Examination

Normal and abnormal cellular elements may be seen in urine under a microscope:

• Red blood cells

• White blood cells

• Epithelial cells

• Crystals

Microscopic Examination Results:

• Red blood cells are not found in normal urine.

• White blood cells and bacteria, signs of infections, are not found in normal urine.

• Epithelial cells are found in urine as they are the cells that line the urinary tract

• Common crystals seen even in healthy patients include calcium oxalate, triple phosphate crystals and amorphous phosphates. 

What indicates that kidney stones are present or there is a problem with how the body is using food?

A large number of crystals or a certain types of crystals

Gestational Diabetes Symptoms

Symptoms: pregnant, excessive thirst, frequent urination, fatigue, and weight loss

Gestational Diabetes Causes

Causes:

Hormones causing insulin resistance →high blood sugar

Age, genetics, diet, or lifestyle that leads to high blood sugar

Gestational Diabetes Urinalysis

Hazy color, high specific gravity, high glucose

Temporary Proteinuria Urinalysis

Dark yellow, high protein

Temporary Proteinuria Symptoms

Symptoms: temporary changes in urine after excercise

Temporary Proteinuria Causes

Causes: Intense exercise →stress on kidneys→high protein in urine

Increased blood flow and pressure

Dehydration →more concentrated urine