ECU PSY1101: Intro to Psych

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Psychology

The study of the mind, behaviour, and the relationship between them. It is the scientific study of behaviour, involving strong strong theoretical underpinnings and a strong research basis.

Goals of Psychology

Aims to describe, explain, predict, and change behaviour.

Psychological Phenomena

Biological Psychology

The study and measurement of biological or physiological psychological phenomena.

Cognitive Psychology

The study and measurement of mental abilities, including sensation / perception, learning, memory, attention, etc.

Developmental Psychology

The study and measurement of changes in mental processes and behaviour from birth through to old age.

Personality Psychology

Involves the study and measurement of individual differences in human traits, and the process of organising particular personality traits into personality types.

Clinical Psychology

The study of the causes and treatment of mental disorders such as depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, etc.

Social Psychology

The study and measurement of how people think about themselves and others, as well as the influence of social factors on behaviour.

Myths in Psychology:

Misconceptions that enjoy widespread belief among a significant portion of the population. They can emerge from a variety of sources, and can have widespread negative impacts

Sources of Myths

• Word of mouth

• Selective memory

• Causation from correlation

• Post hoc, ergo propter hoc

• Biassed samples

• Reasoning by representativeness

• Media portrayals

• Partial truths

• Terminology

• False dichotomies

• Slippery slope arguments

Sources of Myths: Word of Mouth

Myths often spread verbally, similar to urban legends, and can have partial truth to them. Hearing the same claim repeatedly from different verbal sources can lead us to believe it is true.

Sources of Myths: Selective Memory + Illusory Correlations

We rarely perceive reality as it actually is. We may create illusory correlations, where one event can happen simultaneously with another unrelated event, causing us to over-extend the relationship between the two.

Sources of Myths: Causation from Correlation

The incorrect assumption that just because two things are related to one another, one actively causes the other. This ignores the numerous extraneous variables that are likely at play.

Sources of Myths: Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc

This phrase translates to ‘after this, therefore because of this’. A logical fallacy where we often assume that because A precedes B, then A must actively cause B.

Sources of Myths: Biassed Samples

Due to the nature of the world, we are often exposed to a limited portion of the population and, therefore, limited variability in perspectives. Certain unique perspectives may be biassed in their representation as they could be filtered through media portrayals.

Sources of Myths: Reasoning by Representativeness

Otherwise known as the representativeness heuristic, this involves evaluating the similarity between two things based on their superficial resemblance to one another.

Sources of Myths: Media Portrayals

Our assumptions regarding specific things may be incorrectly based off of their representations in media.

Sources of Myths: Partial Truths

Some myths are easily believed due to being based in truth, but they may have been misinterpreted, misconstrued, or manipulated.

Sources of Myths: Terminology

Some myths may result from mistaken inferences and correlations between two things which are related in terminology. For example, schizophrenia is often confused with DID, as schizophrenia etymologically means ‘split mind’.

Sources of Myths: False Dichotomies

A false dichotomy occurs when only two options or a false association between two unrelated things are presented, where in fact multiple other options exist and the situation is more nuanced.

Sources of Myths: Slippery-Slope Arguments

Arguments where someone is countered through illogical reasoning involving hyperbole, where the consequences of the initial idea are taken to their absolute extremes. For example, someone may believe if they fail their exams, they will fail school, never get a job, and die homeless.

Where is our Knowledge Drawn From?

• It inherently makes sense

• Personal experience

• Media consumption

• We heard it elsewhere

• Authority figures

• Testimonials

• Scientific sources

Value of Testimonials in Research

Testimonials are worthless for the evaluation of theories or practice, as:

• They are easy to generate

• They have positive bias

• They are isolated cases which may often involve the placebo effect

• Despite these flaws they are extremely convincing and are, therefore, not allowed to be used in psychological practice

Goal of Scientific Practice

To create reasonable explanations (or theories) to describe phenomena appearing in our reality. It is solely evidence-based, gathered and evaluated according to systematically-applied and rigid rules. The process is accumulative, continuously evolving, and rigorously evaluated.

Five Norms of Science

• Universalism

• Communalism

• Disinterestedness

• Organised scepticism

• Novelty

Five Norms of Science: Universalism

The attributes of a researcher should be wholly irrelevant; different researchers should consistently reach the same conclusions.

Five Norms of Science: Communalism

The idea that there is no ownership over scientific knowledge, and that there is a duty to share this knowledge publicly.

Five Norms of Science: Disinterestedness

Scientists must place aside all of their own personal biases and beliefs.

Five Norms of Science: Organised Scepticism

Science should be subject to peer-review and replication

Five Norms of Science: Novelty

Scientific research should not just involve repetition - new research should be developed and the field should evolve.

Converging Evidence / The Connectivity Principle

The idea that scientific research should build atop of previous bodies of research. Any theories should account for new findings as well as old ones.

Empiricism

The idea that all hypotheses and theories must be tested with regard to observations and testing rather than primarily being based off of reasoning, intuition, or revelation. Empirical research involves clearly defined variables, well-designed studies, sound hypotheses, or easily testable research questions.

Stages of the Research Process

1. Conceptual framework (models and hypothesis)

2. Planning research (designs and sampling)

3. Collection of data (instruments and measurement scales

4. Analysing data

5. Publishing research with critique, collaboration, and review

Observational Research

A method of research involving the systematic recording of phenomena in the setting where they naturally occur. Alone, observation is not sufficient for the scientific collection of evidence and must be systematic.

Scientific Theory

Scientific theories are constructed to explain and predict phenomena. They must satisfy two requirements: it must accurately be generalisable to the wider population, and it must have some form of predictive power. No theory is infallible - theories must be constantly updated in response to new empirical findings which challenge their theoretical base.

Testable Questions

Hypotheses and research questions must be testable, which involves the definition of a sample, what is being measured, etc. Non-testable questions cannot be quantified in scientific research.

Falsifiability

Scientific theories must be framed in a way that they can be demonstrated to be false, as there is a logical possibility that a theory can be contradicted by new research. This does not necessarily state that all theories are false; rather, that IF it is false, then findings should be able to disprove it.

Predictive Ability

The degree to which a theory can predict future behaviours, events, etc.

Explanatory Power

Verifiability

Science must be publicly verifiable in order to be evaluated. Science does not really exist until it has been submitted to the scientific community and opened to criticism / empirical evaluation by others.

Heuristics

Cognitive shortcuts that help us to make fast and effective judgements about the world. They are strategies that use readily accessible information to help us better understand the world. They often occur subconsciously and involuntarily.

Thinking Heuristics: Conjunction Fallacy

A heuristic that is derived from the misunderstanding of a fundamental probability principle: that the probability of two events in conjunction can never be greater than the probability of the events occurring on their own. Involves the assumption that more specific conditions are more likely than individual ones.

Thinking Heuristics: Confirmation Bias

The favouring of information that supports pre-existing beliefs. Involves us ignoring information which goes against our beliefs whilst placing greater significance upon information which supports our beliefs.

Thinking Heuristics: Illusory Correlation

Perceiving a relationship between two factors where one does not exist. People generally misperceive random events as related.

Thinking Heuristics: Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to over-emphasise dispositional or personality-based (internal) explanations for observed behaviours in others. This develops from the ‘salience of the person’ - the idea that in any given situation the individual is the primary point of attention, leading to the surrounding situation being overlooked.

Thinking Heuristics: Self-Serving Bias

The tendency for us to attribute events incorrectly, often taking credit for positive outcomes whilst blaming negative outcomes on external factors.

Thinking Heuristics: The Baader-Meinhof Phenomenon

The faulty impression that something occurs or appears ore frequently than it really does. This often occurs when we learn something new - suddenly, it seems as if we are seeing this new thing far more frequently, when in reality only our awareness of the item has increased.

Thinking Heuristics: Stereotypes

Many of the above heuristics feed into stereotypes. Stereotypes are faulty assumptions that members of a group all share the same underlying characteristics. It is a form of social categorisation that helps us to simplify and systematise information, facilitating more efficient interactions.

Judgement Heuristics: Availability Heuristic

Predicting the frequency of an event based on how easily an example of the event can be provided. Operates under the notion that if something can be recalled, it must be important or more likely to be true.

Judgement Heuristics: Representativeness Heuristic

Judging the probability of a hypothesis based on how much the hypothesis resembles available data. It involves the judgement of something by intuitively comparing it to our mental representation of a category.

Judgement Heuristics: Anchoring Effect

The tendency to heavily rely on the first piece of information offered / learned (the anchor) when making judgements or decisions.

Judgement Heuristics: Forer/Barnum Effect

The tendency for people to believe descriptions of their personality have high levels of accuracy, with these descriptions being vague enough to be applied to just about anyone. This is seen often in horoscopes or psychics.

Judgement Heuristics: Pollyanna Principle

Some people have a subconscious bias towards positive and optimistic things, particularly agreeing with positive statements about themselves.

Judgement Heuristics: The Halo / Horn Effect

When our overall impression of a person, product, or bran is positive due to being based on a single positive characteristic. The opposite of this is the horn effect.

Judgement Heuristics: Just World Theory

The belief that people get what they deserve, related to the idea of karma. Guides the fundamental attribution error.

Memory Heuristics: The Misinformation Effect

The tendency for information we learn after an event to interfere with our memory of that event. Gaslighting is an example of this.

Critical Thinking

A method of thinking in which we question, analyse, interpret, evaluate, and make judgements about the information we consume. It is about making reliable judgements about reliable information.

Extraordinary Claims Principle

Proposes that extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence to support them. The more a claim predicts what we already know, the more persuasive the evidence for this claim must be.

Occam’s Razor

Involves ‘shaving off’ unnecessarily complex information to arrive at the simplest possible answer to a problem. The simplest option is often the one that accounts for the most information.

4 Good Critical Thinking Habits

• Being fair and open-minded when considering different views

• Try to understand things deeply and be curious

• Question any assumptions

• Be persistent, thoughtful, and careful

5 Poor Critical Thinking Habits

• Bias towards your own side of an argument

• Only understanding things superficially without caring to learn more about a subject

• Accepting information without questioning it

• Jumping to conclusions

• Being overly confident

Evaluating Evidence: Authority

Involves the evaluation of the qualifications of an author. What field do they work in? What have they published before? What is their reputation? Do they have any conflicting interests?

Evaluating Evidence: Purpose

Why was this content produced? What was the intent? Does it aim to be evidence-based> Is it objective or an argument? Is an idea or a product being sold?

Evaluating Evidence: Provided Evidence

What evidence is included in the source and where does it originate from? Is it trustworthy? Are references being used that can be corroborated?

Lateral Reading

Involves the verification and fact-checking of information in sources by reading across multiple sources. Helps to engage in multiple perspectives and broaden our own view.

The Split-Mind Approach

An approach to critical thinking that involves separating our minds into two different lenses of criticality. One half actively agrees with the text, extending and applying the information and refuting any criticisms. The other half then actively disagrees and questions all claims, thinking of criticisms, counter-examples, logical holes, etc.

Conformity

The adjustment of individual behaviours, attitudes, and beliefs to match a group standard in response to social pressure.

Factors Influencing Conformity

• Ambiguity of the Situation: We are more likely to mimic the behaviours of others in high-confusion environments

• Unanimity: We are more likely to conform when the majority group increases in size

• Minority Influence: We are less likely to conform when the minority has high levels of influence

Differences Between Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience

Conformity occurs due to an unspoken group pressure, compliance occurs when we are requested to change our behaviours (but not demanded), whereas obedience occurs due to a direct demand.

Obedience

Behavioural changes in response to demands from an authority figure.

Factors Influencing Obedience

• The prestige and status of the authority figure

• The behaviour of others in response to demands

• The levels of privacy experienced by the recipient of the demand

• Personality characteristics both of the commander and the obeying individual

Asch’s Line Study

Conformity study which measured whether individuals would conform to a clearly incorrect answer in regard to a line judgement task.

Milgram’s Shock Study

Obedience study which measured whether people were willing to place what they assumed to be extreme harm onto individuals due to demands from an authority figure.

Stanford Prison Experiment

A study conducted to study the psychological effects of perceived power dynamics, where participants were assigned to a group of either prisoners or prison guards and their response to those roles.

Social Norms

These are the most widespread - but also most subtle - form of social influence. They are shared expectations about how people should think, feel, and behave in particular social situations, both in regard to our own behaviour and the expected behaviours of others.

Social Control

Mechanisms used by society to regulate the behaviour of individuals and maintain social order. It can include formal institutions (i.e. laws) or informal norms / expectations. Aimed at preventing deviant behaviour and promoting conformity to societal standards. They can help to prevent harmful behaviour, but also can be quite oppressive.

Peer Surveillance

The idea that we are being monitored or observed by our peers. Peer surveillance influences behaviour by promoting conformity to social group norms. Can occur through social groups, communities, or online social networks.

Deindividuation

The idea that presence within a large group setting can cause us to lose our sense of individual identity / our personal responsibility. We may experience a loss of self-awareness, which could result in impulsive or deviant behaviour.

Diffusion of Responsibility

When in a group setting we feel less accountable for our actions, as the responsibility is diffused across all members of the group. We tend to assume others will take responsibility, which could lead to the bystander effect.

Groupthink

Occurs when group cohesion and the desire for unanimity override our own critical thinking and decision-making skills. We ignore alternative viewpoints and suppress dissent, often being derived from a desire to reach a decision as soon as possible rather than reaching the best decision possible.

In-Group

The social group to which an individual belongs and identifies with. Provides a sense of belonging, identity, and social support.

Out-Group

The social group/s to which an individual does not identify with or belong to. They could be subject to stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination from the in-group.

Group Polarisation

A phenomenon where group discussions lead to the strengthening of pre-existing attitudes or opinions. Discussing our ideas and thoughts can lead to those ideas being strengthened automatically due to the collective stance of the group.

Echo Chambers

Environments where individuals only encounter information or opinions that reinforce or align with their pre-existing beliefs. This is found commonly on social media. It leads to the amplification and polarisation of viewpoints and fosters confirmation bias. It can limit exposure to diverse perspectives, hindering constructive dialogue.

Social Loafing

The tendency for people to exert less effort in a group task than they would when working alone. Occurs due to people believing their contributions are less critical to the overall success of the task, or when individual effort is not assessed in isolation.

Social Facilitation

The phenomenon where individuals perform better on simple or well-rehearsed tasks when in the presence of others. Their presence provides pressure which increases our arousal and motivation to impress them, enhancing our performance on tasks we are confident in.

Out-Group Homogeneity Effect

The perception of out-group members as more similar to one another than in-group members. It simplifies perceptions, fosters stereotypes, and increases prejudice.

False Consensus Effect

Overestimating the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviours. Leads to misjudgements and projection of one’s own opinions onto others.

Robber’s Cave Experiment

Social Contagion

The spread of thoughts, feelings, and actions among or between group members through imitations, mimicry, or direct contact.

Mass Hysteria

Widespread and irrational fear / anxiety that affects large groups of people simultaneously. One example is the War of the Worlds broadcast or the satanic panic.

Mass Psychogenic Illness

The occurrence of physical symptoms or illnesses within a group without a known organic cause, often triggered by psychological factors. One example is the dancing plague.

Collective False Memories (Mandela Effect)

The shared memories or beliefs between groups that are inaccurate or entirely fabricated despite their widespread belief. This can lead to individuals remembering events or details that never actually occurred.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecies

The idea that our expectations can lead us to act in away that brings about expected behaviours in others. For instance, our pre-conceived notions about a groups behaviours may lead us to behave in a particular way around them which could lead them to behave in the way we expect.

Aggression

A social emotion characterised by forms of hostile or violent behaviour towards others. Can be triggered by factors such as frustration, perceived threat, or competition. Manifests as physical violence, verbal abuse, passive aggression. Often serves to assert dominance over others or defend territory.

Altruism

A social emotion characterised by selfless concern for the wellbeing of others. Actions aimed at the benefit of others without an expectation for anything in return. This helps to foster cohesion, trust, and cooperation within groups.

Thinking

Thinking is the manipulation of mental representations - whether images or words - for specific purposes. It can be used to denote memory, beliefs, or mental thoughts / processes. Thinking in isolation is split into four types:

• Problem solving

• Judgement

• Decision-making

• Reasoning

Thinking: Concepts

Categories of objects, events, or ideas in which all members of that category share common characteristics, Concepts facilitate more efficient neural processing, as they allow us to understand what we are currently seeing by relating it to previously formed concepts (what we have already seen / know).

Thinking: Formal Concepts

Precisely defined categories defined by rules with clear boundaries and criteria for membership. To be part of a formal concept items must wholly meet the clearly defined rules.