APUSH National Exam Flashcards

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After Columbus established permanent contact with the New World, how did Spain focus its colonial efforts?

Spain focused primarily on conquest and expeditions in Central and South America under conquistadors (conquerors) sent from Spain to the New World

Hernan Cortes

Spanish conquistador who conquered the Aztecs in 1519

Francisco Pizarro

Spanish conquistador who conquered the Incas in 1531

How did contact with Europeans affect the native inhabitants of the New World?

-Brought new crops, but also disease (smallpox)- natives had no immunity

-Natives were used for labor

Columbian Exchange

interchange of plants, animals, and disease between Europe and the New World.

Europeans brought disease (-), coffee, wheat, cows

Native Americans provided potatoes, tobacco, corn

Encomienda system

System of labor used only by Spanish colonizers wherethey converted to Catholicism and protected Indian inhabitants in return for their labor

Battle of Trenton

1776- Who: British and Hessian mercenaries (Germans) vs. Americas

During: On Christmas, Washington crossed the Delaware River, surprised the Hessians and occupied the outpost at Trenton.

Victory for America

Significance: boosted morale for America

First Great Awakening

Religious revival movement during the 1730s and 1740s; stressed the need for individuals to repent and urged a personal understanding of truth

Leaders: George Whitefield and Johnathan Edwards

Mercantalism

17th century idea: country’s power based on wealth, trade, colonies

Purpose of colonies:enrich the pc

Exports more than importants; favorable balance of trade; self-sufficient govt

Navigation Acts

Stated that colonies existed to benefit the mother country by controlling their trade and restricting it to England.

1. All colonial goods carried on English ships only

2. All goods imported into the colonies could pass only through English ports

3. Certain colonial products could be exported to England only (e.g. tobacco, sugar, cotton)

Effects: colonial resentment and defiance of the Acts (smuggling),

Triangular trade

• Economic system- Great Britain used colonies to profit and the Americas through a brutal and profitable system of trade and enslavement. In the first stage, Europeans brought manufactured goods to Africa to exchange for enslaved Africans, whom they forced on the Middle Passage to the Americas. In the Americas, the enslaved people were sold to work on plantations, producing raw materials like sugar, cotton, and tobacco. In the final stage, these raw materials were shipped back to Europe, making wealthy traders and European nations a great deal of money at the terrible cost of human lives and suffering. 

America could get raw materials in their plantations but cannot make manufactured goods

Europeans could make manufactured goods.

Britain’s relationship with colonies 1607-1763

“salutary neglect”- →(Mercantilist policies were not too burdensome)

• (+) to colonists

• Colonists started acquiring a taste for “self government”.

Colonists were angry once salutary neglect was abandoned after the French and Indian War.

Royal governance of the colonies: decentralization -The British government had theoretical control over the colonies, it was not able to exert strong authority over them, as their power over colonies was decentralized (meaning, weak control from the central government in London). So, the colonial legislatures were able to exercise more power, as there wasn't a strong central government to prevent that. Ultimately, both the British government and the colonial legislatures are sharing power over the colonies, but the colonial assemblies are growing stronger and more independent, so when Britain begins enforcing new laws on the colonists, they don't like the threat to their power

Articles of Confederation

Written by Second Continental Congress in 1777; ratified in 1781

Art. of Confederation would serve as the first government

Key feature: Weak central government; powers rested with the states

• Only branch of government: Congress (legislative)Successes of the Articles (e.g. Land Ordinance of 1785, Northwest Ordinance) - Resolution of controversies involving western lands. Ordinance fo 1784- divided western territory into ten self governing districts. Ordinance of 1785- system for surveying and selling western lands. (land north of the Ohio River)

• Features/weaknesses (also see Articles of Confederation matrix)- lacked power to deal with interstate issues or to enforce its will on the states.

Weaknesses- Problems with international trade, federal debts (Congress had no taxation power/couldn’t pay war debts)

Land Ordinance of 1785

One success of Articles of Confederation. System of dividing and distributing newly acquired land in the west (Northwest Territory) 36 sections: section 16 set aside for schools.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

Ordinance that abandoned the ten districts established in ‘84 and created a single NorthWest Territory out of the lands north of the Ohio

Shays’s Rebellion

Cause: war debts; Veterans of the Rev. War losing their homes due to foreclosures and past due tax

• Shays issued a set of demands: paper money, tax relief, a moratorium on debts, and the abolition of imprisonment for debt.

• Shays led an uprising in western Massachusetts.

• Shays marches army to federal arsenal (storage of weapons) in Springfield, MA

Effects: MA raised a small army to suppress the rebellion

-Shays followers were suppressed, and Shays was condemned to death but was later pardoned

Importance: rebellion added urgency to the movement to produce a new, national constitution.

• Showed weakness of Article of Confederation

• Too much democratic liberty among the lower classes could threaten private property.

Constitutional Convention (1787-1789): in Philadelphia

• Why called- interstate conference to advocate for a stronger national gov/new constitution

• Characteristics of the “Founding Fathers”; specific attendees-  55 delegates representing all the states. Young, well educated, wealthy property owners

• James Madison was named the “Father of the Constitution”- He arrived at the convention with a plan; wrote the framework of government (Virginia Plan)

• George Washington was the figurehead and President of the Constitutional Convention

What attendees sought to do/major principles of operation”
-Creation of 3 branches- Legislative, Executive, Judicial.

• The delegates mostly agreed on certain principles:

1.  demanded sound money policies

2.  protection of private property

3.  favored a stronger gov’t. with 

3 branches & checks and balances

4.  complete “manhood-suffrage” 

democracy should be feared 

Virginia Plan

Also known as “large state plan” at Constitutional Convention of 1787-89: - shaped agenda of the convention. upper and lower house. Upper is states with higher population, while lower is states with smaller population.

New Jersey Plan

Also known as “small state plan” at Constitutional Convention of 1787-89- all states have equal representation (one house legislature) 

Great Compromise

agreement to a two-house legislature

1. House of Representatives - based on population

2. Senate - equal representation for each state (2 senators each)

Compromise on slavery at Constitutional Convention

• Three-Fifths Compromise- every 5 slaves would count as 3 free people in determining people in the house.

*The slaves were being used to contribute to the population, but they weren’t actually represented or considered as people

•  slave trade compromise- To placate southern delegates, who feared the new govt would interfere with slavery, the convention agreed to bar the govt from stopping the slave trade for 20 years

Federalists

• Key figures: George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, James Madison

• Wealthier, more educated, controlled the press, middle class in New England

• Supported the strong central govt. created by the Constitution

• Madison, Hamilton and John Jay wrote The Federalist papers to win support for the 

Constitution

Antifederalist

• Key figures: Thomas Jefferson, Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, George Mason

• Focused on states’ rights (farmers, poor)

• Support: Average, commoners/farmers in the South and parts in the west

• Thought the rich were trying to consolidate power

• Wanted power to rest with state governments; feared a strong central government

• Beliefs regarding Constitution: State government would dissolve if Constitution was ratified

• Wanted a “bill of rights” added to the Constitution

The Federalist Papers

• Purpose/what they were- argued for why a strong national government is necessary and not a threat to people’s liberties.

• Who wrote them- Alexander Hamilton, James Madision, and John Jay

The Bill of Rights

supported by the Anti-Federalists

• What they are- first 10 amendments of the constitution

• Purpose - protect individual rights against a strong central government

• What liberties they protect- freedom of religion, speech, press; immunity from arbitrary arrest; trial by jury

Judiciary Act of 1789

Established the structure and jurisdiction of the federal court system

Congress provided for a Supreme court of six members and a system of lower district courts and courts of appeal. Gave sup. court the power the make the final decision in cases involving the constitutionality of state laws

Three branches of government : legislative, executive, judicial/Separation of Powers

Agreed at the Consitutional Convention 1787-89

Functions/powers of each-

•  Legislative (Congress)- Make laws

• Executive (President)- Enforce laws

• Judicial (Supreme Court)- Interprets Laws

• How each can check the other branches 

• (“Checks and Balances”): Definition- system in government where each branch has the power to limit or stop the other branches, preventing any one from becoming too powerful

Each branch could restrain the power of others.  Executive (President): (To Legislative) can veto laws. (To Judicial) nominates judges

Legislative (Congress): (To Executive) can override veto ⅔. (To Judicial) Confirms nominations/impeach judges

Judicial (Supreme Court): (To Executive) Can declare presidential acts unconstitutional. (To Legislative) Can declare laws unconstitutional.

George Washington’s Presidency

(1789-1797)- Significance of Washington’s Presidency

• It is the first real test of the new Constitution in action

• Takes a strongly pro-Federalist tone: creates foundation for political parties 

• Keeps the USA out of wars and European entanglements 

• Serves as a model for future presidencies 

Formation of the cabinet

Begins during George Washington’s presidency

Secretary of State- led by Thomas Jefferson

• Manages country’s foreign affairs

Secretary of the Treasury- led by Alexander Hamilton

• Manages finance and country’s money

Secretary of War- led by Henry Knox

• Manages foreign alliances/affairs with other countries

Attorney General- led by Edmund Randolph

• Manages law enforcement

• Importance: Begins precedent of a president calling cabinet meetings in order to obtain advice and information.

Alexander Hamilton’s Economic Program

• Who it benefited/rationale- the elite/rich. Nation's elite had most of the bonds, so they were paid back with interest funded by federal taxes

  • Republicans greatly oppose since it only benefits the rich

• National debt: War debts+ state debts. Purpose-  Wealthy classes who were the most likely to lend money to the government would always have a reason to want the government to survive. How funded- New interest-bearing bonds would be issued as old ones were paid off.

• Assumption of state debts: Purpose- To cause state bondholders also to look to the central government for eventual payment. Rationale:  build national credit and show the world that the U.S. could manage its finances responsibly.

•  Excise taxes - Tax on alcoholic beverages *Effected the whiskey distillers/farmers of the backcountry

• Customs duties (tariff on imports)- Purpose: raise money and protect domestic industries from foreign competition. If imports are more expensive, people will start buying goods in their own countries.

• National bank (Bank of the United States)- Purpose- Provide loans and currency to businesses, give the government a safe place for the deposit of federal funds, control the collection of taxes.

“necessary and proper”/Elastic clause

Hamilton’s belief- Grants Congress the power to pass “necessary and proper” laws to execute its specific enumerated powers even if it is not listed in the constitution

Amendment X

Jefferson’s belief- To reserve powers not specifically granted to the federal government. The federal government only has the authority granted to it by the Constitution. 

• They argued that they couldn’t create the National Bank because it wasn’t stated in the Constitution

Whiskey Rebellion: cause, effect, importance

• Where: SW Pennsylvania

• Cause: Hamilton’s excise tax on whiskey→Affected backcountry whiskey distillers

• What happened: Farmers began attacking revenue collectors *like in the Stamp Act

• Washington confronts the rebels in person and federalizes (puts under federal control) 15,000 state militia —> rebellion collapses immediately

• Importance: shows ability of federal government to deal with rebellion against its laws *compare to Shays’ Rebellion & Articles of Confederation vs. Constitution!!!

Formation of first political parties: know core beliefs, who supported them

Federalists- Alexander Hamilton

Where?: Commercial centers of the Northeast, southern ports (Charleston)

Core beliefs:

• Strong nation state, with centralized authority- elite ruling class

• Complex commercial economy *emphasized manufacturing, trade, shipping

• Loose interpretation of Constitution.

• Favored national bank & protective tariff (wanted to create stronger, STABLE financial system)

Democratic-Republicans- Thomas Jefferson 

Where?: Rural areas of the South and the West 

Core beliefs:

• Modest national government (power in the people!)

• Rural and agrarian economy *emphasized agriculture

• Strict interpretation of Constitution

• Opposed national bank & protective tariff. (fear of concentrated power, and Constitution did not mention anything about a national bank)

Impact of the French Revolution:

• Federalists- Hamilton wants stability. The chaos in France reinforced their belief that a powerful government was necessary to prevent such disorder from occurring in the U.S..

• Republican reactions- Openly sympathize with the French Revolutionaries. The French Revolution's aim of abolishing the absolute monarchy aligned perfectly with the Republican core values and hopes for a world free of oppressive rulers.

Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation

1793- Washington states that the U.S. is neutral between the war of France and Britain. 

Cause:  this is a response to the war that broke out between France and Britain; Jefferson resigns 

Citizen Genet affair

1793- Background: Arriving in 1793, Genet, a supporter of the French Revolution, believed he was acting in accordance with the 1778 alliance between the U.S. and France 

• Edmond Genet- French minister to USA, objects to Neutrality Proclamation; appeals directly to American people for support.

• Began recruiting “armies” to invade Spanish Florida and Louisiana

• Results: Genet was eventually replaced 

Jay’s Treaty

1794- First real test of Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation Background/Cause: British posts on USA’s western frontier from the American Revolution; British seizure of American ships and impressment of seamen into British navy.

During: John Jay was sent to negotiate with Britain. Terms of treaty: Britain agreed to evacuate posts on U.S. western frontier; nothing said about future seizure of ships or impressment

Effect: Britain did not change impressment policies but they got rid of posts

• People were mad at Jay & Washington (who was cautious). Enraged Jeffersonian supporters of France. 

• Results: averted war; maintained Washington’s policy of neutrality

Pinckney’s Treaty:

1795- Background: Spain sees potential for British-American alliance from Jay’s Treaty; decides to consolidate territory in NA.

• Terms: Spain opens lower Mississippi River and New Orleans to American trade

-Gave USA disputed territory north of Florida (boundary: 31st parallel)

Washington’s Farewell Address (1796)

Sets precedent for peaceful transfer of power, By declining to run again, Washington creates a two term precedent.

Key ideas: Avoid permanent/foreign alliances, avoid European entanglements, warned against “factions” (political parties)

John Adams’s presidency- when, importance of election

(1797-1801)- Vice president Thomas Jefferson

Circumstances of election- First U.S. election that was contested and between two developing political parties. (candidate vs. candidate)

• Adams (Federalist) won against Jefferson (Republican)

Unofficial war with France: causes- France begins seizing American merchant ships in revenge for Jay’s Treaty. France thought Britain was siding with U.S.

• XYZ Affair- Americans arrived in Paris in 1797- to negotiate with France. 

• French foreign minister demanded a loan and a bribe for the French before any negotiations.

• Pinckney, American minister, refused.

Effect: Adams persuaded Congress to cut off all trade with France, repeal the treaties of 1778, and to authorize American vessels to capture French armed ships on the high seas.

• Leads to Quasi/“unofficial” war: U.S. creates Navy Dept. and Marine Corps

Alien and Sedition Acts

Introduced by Federalists in Congress in 1798

Cause: Federalists wanted to pass laws that silenced power of rebellious critics, and they wanted to assert their power. They also saw immigrants as possible threats from France

• Purpose/who or what they targeted- French-friendly Democratic-Republicans  & Immigrants

Three Acts:

• Naturalization Act: increases from 5 to 14 the number of years required for immigrants to qualify for U.S. citizenship

• Alien Act: created a struggle for foreigners/immigrants who wanted to become American citizens.  Authorized the president to deport any aliens considered dangerous and detain enemies in times of war

• Sedition Act: Allowed the government to prosecute those who engaged in rebellion against the government. Newspaper editors are not allowed to criticize the government

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions

(1798-1799) Purpose: Republicans wanted to reverse Alien & Sedition acts. Believed that the acts violated the 1st Amendment 

• Resolutions: -Argued that the federal government was formed by a “compact” among the states & and only possessed certain delegated powers.

• If the central government exceeded their given power, states have the right to “nullify” it.

• Importance: Nullification argument used in 1830s by southern states   

Thomas Jefferson’s Presidency

(1801-1809) Vice president Aaron Burrs

The “Revolution of 1800”

• U.S Presidential election between John Adams, Aaron Burrs, and Thomas Jefferson. 

• When the tie occurs between Burrs and Jefferson = Federalists control H. of Rep. Hamilton urges votes for Jefferson (Burrs and Hamilton bitter rivals)

•  H. of Reps. votes for Jefferson; Burr becomes Vice- President

Importance of “Revolution of 1800” election:

•  Constitution called for each elector to vote by ballot for president and vice-president.

• Peaceful transfer of power- federalist →republican

How Jefferson “’consolidated” the “Revolution of 1800” with his policies

Jefferson’s inauguration: “We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists”

• Actively tried to win trust of Federalist opponents: Kept Hamilton’s economic program largely intact (except excise tax): national debt repayment, kept national bank. Carried on neutrality policies of Washington and Adams. But - did retain loyalty of Republican supporters:

• Reduced size of military

• Eliminated some federal jobs

• Repealed excise taxes

• Lowered national debt

Jefferson’s Presidency- rise in industrialism, innovations in technology

• Advancements in education/public school system-

• Consideration of “Republican motherhood” considered females to be educated. 

• Public schools appeared more in northern states, however not too strong. Public schools not in South due to slavery. 

• Overall, private schools still far outnumber public.

Innovations in technology and transportation- 

Background: The Industrial Revolution in England during the late 18th century benefited America because the country received a great amount of Great Britain immigrants, (aka. skilled inventors), and English imports.

• Technology- spinning mill, cotton gin (by Eli Whitney)

• Eli Whitney also introduced concept of interchangeability

• Importance: People had to travel great distances and needed interchangeable parts.

Background: U.S. had no transportation system to move raw materials to factories

Transportation- 

• Steam boat: with the help of England’s steam power, the first steamboat big enough to carry passengers was launched in 1807

• Toll roads: people needed to pay when using the roadway

How did The Industrial Revolution in England during the late 18th century benefited America?

The country received a great amount of Great Britain immigrants, (aka. skilled inventors), and English imports.

• Technology- spinning mill, cotton gin (by Eli Whitney)

• Eli Whitney also introduced concept of interchangeability

• Importance: People had to travel great distances and needed interchangeable parts.

John Marshall and the Supreme Court

Marbury v. Madison (1803): judicial review- 

• Establishes doctrine of Judicial Review

•  Gave the Supreme Court the final say over the law (unconstitutional or constitutional?).

•  Effect of Marshall’s rulings upon governmental power

• Affirmed the federal government's supremacy and its implied powers over the states

• *In the case it was concluded that Marbury (state) was entitled to his commission, but it also established the Court’s power of judicial review, strengthening the authority of the federal government over state and legislative actions.

Louisiana Purchase

1803- Background: Napoleon wanted to regain territory west of the Mississippi which belonged to Spain since the French and Indian War. 

• 1800- Secret treaty between Spain & France →France regained Louisiana, and unofficially controlled New Orleans.

• 1802: Spain closes port of New Orleans to Americans – violation of 1795 Pinckney Treaty

• Jefferson sends R. Livingston to purchase New Orleans from France

• Jefferson was hesitant to purchase because nothing about acquiring new land said in the Constitution

Terms: Napoleon agrees to sell Louisiana to USA for $15 million

Importance: Expanded U.S western frontier until the Pacific Ocean, previously only expanded until Mississippi, removal of foreign presence.

Lewis and Clark expedition

1804-1806: Purpose of expedition: Investigate prospects for trade with Indians.

Significance: Provided knowledge of the newly acquired Louisiana territory (expanding west), and establishing initial relations with Native American tribes

British-American tension during Jefferson’s presidency

Background: Napoleonic Wars

• Britain and France seize ships of neutral nations and confiscate their cargoes

• Impressments; By 1807, many British men who were forced to enlist in the navy fled to the U.S.. The British searched American ships and took however they thought deserted the navy.

• Chesapeake-Leopard incident-1807: British Leopard accused the U.S. Chesapeake of holding British deserters, so they destroyed it. Anti-British feeling ran high!

• The “Indian Problem”- Due to white settlement by Americans in North American, Indians looked for English support

• British in Canada had relied on the Indians as partners in the fur trade

• After 1807 (Chesapeake-Leonard crisis), the war crisis revived conflict between Indians and white settlers. 

• Chesapeake-Leopard incident-

1807: Was one of the reasons for British-American conflicts. British Leopard accused the U.S. Chesapeake of holding British deserters, so they destroyed it. Anti-British feeling ran high!

Embargo Act

1807- “Jefferson’s failure”

Cause: Jefferson wanted peace. Meant to be an alternative for war

Purpose: Prohibited American ships from leaving the U.S. for any foreign port= cut off all American exports to foreign countries

• Calculation: Britain would not want to lose U.S. trade, and stop violating maritime rights

BACKFIRED! 

Result/Effect: Law was mostly ignored

• Created a depression in the nation- Devastated New England shipping

James Madison’s Presidency

(1809-1819)

Causes of War of 1812

Impressment/naval tensions-

•  British Navy, facing a shortage of sailors from the Napoleonic Wars would impress American soldiers.

“Indian Problem”

•   Jefferson’s assimilation policy: Indians would convert into settled farmers in white society, or they would have to leave the Northwestern area.

• Strong native leaders, Tenskwatawa (the Prophet), and Tecumseh helped strengthen Indian ideals spread the belief that only through uniting could they resist the growth of white settlement.

• Indians were preparing to fight

Desire for Florida

• Cause: slaves escaped across the Florida border. 

• Indians in Florida launched frequent raids north

• Would give access to valuable ports on the Gulf of Mexico

• Desire of Florida became a motivation for war with Britain- Spain & Britain were allies → war with GB might provide an excuse for taking Spanish territory

Congressional War Hawks

-Congress Republican men who supported the demands of these lands 

Where: South and West. 

- Henry Clay- leader War Hawk. Supporters of war with GB

•  Speaker of the House in 1811

Why did America want Florida during James Madison’s presidency?

• James Madison: (1807-1819)

• Cause: slaves escaped across the Florida border. 

• Indians in Florida launched frequent raids north

• Would give access to valuable ports on the Gulf of Mexico

• Desire of Florida became a motivation for war with Britain- Spain & Britain were allies → war with GB might provide an excuse for taking Spanish territory

Battle of Tippecanoe

1811- Important figures:

William Henry Harrison: governor of Indian Territory.  Goal: Destroy growing in fluence of the two Indian leaders

Tecumseh: spread the belief that only through uniting could tribes resist the growth of white settlement

Cause: When Tecumseh left the town to persuade the tribes in the South to join the alliance, Harrison saw a chance of weakening the tribes

During: Harrison drove off the Indians and burned and town

Result: When Tecumseh returned, the Confederacy was in disarray

• However, by 1812, warriors still wanted to fight

Importance: The British in Canada have supported the uprising and provided the Indians with weapons

Harrison´s goal: drive the British out of Canada and annex that area to the U.S. 

Regional divisions over the War of 1812: How was nation divided?

New England /Middle Atlantic vs. West and South

• New England/Middle Atlantic- opposed the war

  • White frontiersmen in the North demanded the conquest of BritishCanada

• West and South- supported the war

  • Demanded the conquest of Spanish Florida

State of American preparedness for war of 1812

Unprepared…

• Military was a collection of companies

• New generation of soldiers who underestimated the challenge

• No strong navy

American Invasion of Canada – outcome

During War of 1812-

Failures:

• Surrender of Fort Detroit 1812- American forces invaded Canada through Detroit 

  • -Soon had to retreat back to Detroit, and surrendered the fort

American successes against Britain during War of 1812

Great Lake military successes!:

• Battle of York- Americans took command of Lake Ontario and burned York (the capital of Canada.)
  

• Put-in-Bay- American forces then seized control of Lake Eire, and dispersed a British fleet at Put-in-Bay on September 10, 1813.

• Battle of Thames 1813: William Henry Harrison pushed up the Thames River into upper Canada.  Killed Tecumseh who was serving in the British army

  • Result: weakened the Indians of the Northwest.

Battle of New Orleans: importance; Andrew Jackson’s role

Awaiting the British, Andrew Jackson gathered an army of: regular army troops, Tennesseans, Kentuckians, natives, blacks, and pirates.

• Diverse and untrained military

• January 8, 1815, the British arrived and were quickly defeated

Result: British casualties were 10x worse than U.S.s

Importance: Shows that the U.S. can defeat the strongest force

Hartford Convention

 December 15, 1814- Federalists from New England states met in Hartford, Connecticut

• Discussed how the war disrupted their shipping/trading

• Federalists discussed seceeding from the U.S.

Treaty of Ghent

• Is essentially an armistice to end War of 1812

Terms:

1. Halt to fighting

2. Return of all conquered territories & maritime rights

3. Recognition of the prewar boundary between Canada and USA

4. Nothing said about grievances that led to the war! (Impressments, blockades, etc.)

Importance:

Stalemate: no gain for either side!

Irony: does not resolve chief cause of war: impressment

Significant results of War of 1812

• USA gains international respect

• Death of the Federalist party – result of Hartford Convention

• Precedent of “nullification” and “secession” sets example for South

• Native Americans in west abandoned by British = forced to surrender land to whites

• Big step towards economic self-sufficiency: more factories built in response to British naval blockade

• “War hero syndrome” – e.g. William Henry Harrison and Andrew Jackson

• **Huge upswing in American NATIONALISM

Henry Clay’s American System-

Meant to address post-war (War of 1812) economic needs and unify the nation by linking the East to West in a national market: 

1. Second Bank of the United States- chartered in 1816

2. Tariff of 1816: importance- FiProtectionists in Congress passed a tariff law that limited competition from abroad (imports on cotton cloth)

3. Controversy over federal funding of internal improvements 

James Monroe’s presidency

(1817-1825) Era of Good Feelings

The Seminole War

1816- during Era of Good Feelings

• Cause: Andrew Jackson, commander of U.S. troops on the Florida frontier had orders from Secretary of War, Calhoun, to stop continuing raids on U.S. territory by Seminole Indians

• During: Jackson invaded Florida, and seized Spanish forts

• Importance: Jackson’s raid demonstrated that the U.S. could easily take Florida by force

Adams-Onis Treaty

1819- Spain ceded all of Florida to the U.S. and gave up its claim to territory north of the 42nd parallel in the Pacific Northwest

• American government gave up its claims to Texas- for a time

Panic of 1819 – cause, effects

• Cause: Overspeculation in lands in western USA (product of high prices for farm goods)

• Underlying problem: easy credit for farmers and speculators

• 1819 – Bank of the United States banks begin calling in loans and foreclosing on mortgages

• Effect: Leads to failures of state banks and financial panic; six-year depression follows

• Importance: first national financial panic in history; makes western settlers suspect of Bank of the United States

Missouri Compromise

1820-  Purpose: maintain balance of power between slave and free states in Congress 

• What: Admitted Missouri to the Union as a slave state and Maine as a free state

• Terms: Prohibited slavery in the remaining Louisiana Purchase territory north of the 36 degree 30’ latitude line 

John Marshall

Chief Justice of the Supreme Court- Importance: his decisions in Court actively strengthened the central government

Overall effect of key rulings: Fletcher v. Peck, Cohens v. Virginia, McCulloch v. Maryland, Gibbons v. Ogden

• Affirmed that federal laws are supreme to state laws, solidifying the federal government's power in regulating the economy

Monroe Doctrine

1823

Purpose:  Opposed European colonization in the American continents. The U.S. would consider any foreign challenge to the sovereignty of existing American nations an unfriendly act. 

• U.S. promised to not interfere with European powers as well

•  Importance: Showed the growing spirit of nationalism and established the idea of the U.S. as the dominant power in the Western Hemisphere.

The Election of 1824

Also known as the “corrupt bargain”

 Four Republican candidates

• John Quincy Adams (Secretary of State)

•  Henry Clay (Speaker of the House)

•  Andrew Jackson (War hero)

• William Crawford (Secretary of Treasury)

-After the initial vote, none of them had enough electoral votes to win the presidency.

• Andrew Jackson won the most popular votes

2. Twelfth Amendment in Constitution required the House of Reps to choose among the three candidates with largest number of electoral votes. 

• Quincy-Adams is worried that he did not win the most popular votes.

• Proposes to Clay that if he throws his support to Adams, Clay will become Secretary of State when Adams takes office. 

  • Clay also supported Quincy Adams because he was a supporter of American System. 

Results: Jacksonians lost and were angry that Adams named Clay his Secretary of State. Jacksonians called it a “corrupt bargain”

• Jackson had the most popular votes but Quincy Adams won with the electoral votes after Henry Clay helped him win.

Importance:Taints Adams’ presidency = disregarding of will of common man (sets stage for 1828 campaign)

President Quincy-Adams

(1825-1829)

New “Tariff of Abominations”

tariff on imported goods in 1828. “The benefits of protection from foreign competition now had to be balanced against the risk of higher raw-material prices.”

intended to protect Northern manufacturing from foreign competition
-Outcome: Southerners were angry, tariff impacted Southern agricultural economy

Election of 1828

Also known as the Revolution of 1828

• New two-party system- 

  • National Republicans: supporters of John Quincy Adams and economic nationalism. (Attracted remaining Federalists!)

  • Democratic Republics : supported Andrew Jackson- opposed “economic aristocracy” 

• Methods of campaigning: mudslinging, focus on personalities- 

The campaign became a war of personal invective (insults). “Dirty” campaign – mudslinging, smearing of candidates

• Jacksonians claimed Adams was guilty of gross waste and extravagance

• Adam’s supporters called Jackson a murderer and distributed “coffin handbill” (names of militia men Jackson shot in War of 1812)

• Jackson won the election and believed America was entering the “era  of the common man

• Sectional breakdown: which regions supported which candidates

-Adams won support of New England and mid-Atlantic region

-Jackson won support in the South.

• Jackson’s support: West, South, eastern laborers; wins 56% of popular vote

• Importance: Shows political importance of the western territories; common people demonstrate their power with the vote

Andrew Jackson’s core beliefs

“Jeffersonian” in many respects:

1. Champion of common man/working class (against privileges for the wealthy)

2. Opposed increasing federal spending and the national debt

3. Strict constructionist – states’ rights IF those rights did not lead to disunion

Other core beliefs:

4. Passionate defender of federal authority

5. Greatly expanded use of executive power (vetoed congressional legislation often – 12 times)

Andrew Jackson Presidency

1829-1837 - Era of the Common Man

Significance of the Jackson Era

Rise of common man in politics

• 1824-1840: White males of lower and middle classes have more influence on the operations of government

1. Universal male suffrage - all white males can vote; property and religious qualifications swept away. Political offices open to all classes

2. Party nominating conventions – replace caucuses for choosing presidential candidate 

3. Popular election of the president (1832) – democratic method of choosing electors adopted 

4. National two-party system solidified

5. Rise of third parties – e.g. Anti-Masonic Party

6. More elected offices (replaced appointees)

7. Popular campaigning – campaigns directed toward common people

Institutionalization of party politics

1820s-30s

• Began in New York where a political faction “Bucktails” led by Martin Van Buren challenged the political elite.

• For a political party to exist, there must be a permanent opposition to the parties to keep their interests for the good of the citizens.

  • Party politics should have parties check and balance each other.

  • By late 1820s, the idea of party had spread beyond New York 

  • The election of Jackson in 1828 legitimized it further

Two party system- Jackson era

• The Democrats (Jackson’s followers) descended from Democratic-Republicans 

●   Core supporters: southerners, westerners, small farmers, urban workers attract diverse supporters 

• The Whigs- (Anti-Jackson)- descended from Federalist party (Hamilton)

  • Were united in hatred of “King Andrew” Jackson

  • Core supporters: states’ righters opposed to Jackson; supporters of the American System; northern industrialists/urban professionals; evangelical Protestants; wealthiest southern planters

  • First Whig president: William Henry Harrison (1840)

Andrew Jackson- how did he appeal to the (common) people

• Role of/appeal to common people- Theory of democracy: Government should offer equal protection and equal benefits to all its white male citizens (can’t favor a region or class over another)

• Denounced federal officeholders. Jackson believed offices belonged to the people. Turnover in the bureaucracy= own supporters got offices. ⬇

• Spoils system-the practice of a successful political party giving public office to its supporters.

  •  “To the victors belong the spoils”

• Party nominating convention- Renomination of Jackson in 1832- 

• Belief: National convention would renominate because power in the party would arise directly from the people rather than from such elite political institutions as the congressional caucus.

Tariff of Abominations

1828 Why the tariff was passed-to protect northern and western manufacturing from cheaper foreign imports by raising the cost of imported goods

• Why the tariff was resented by South

  • The tariff imposed high taxes on imported manufactured goods, making them more expensive for Southerners, who were not a manufacturing center.

  • Foreign countries retaliated by raising tariffs on Southern cotton, which hurt their export economy

  • By 1833, South Carolina was threatening secession.

Nullification Crisis

1828- in response to the Tariff of Abominations which was hurting Southern agricultural economy.

Calhoun’s South Carolina Exposition:

Part of the Nullification Crisis

• States had the right to nullify laws

• Citing the Tenth Amendment, Calhoun argued that since the federal government was a creation of the states, the states were the final approvers of the constitutionality of federal laws.

• If the federal government misuses power, states have the right to nullify.

Clay’s Compromise Tariff

1833- Tariff would be lowered gradually so that by 1842 it would reach approximately the same level as in 1816.

Outcome: Jackson responded with the Force Bill

Force Bill- 

• Cause: Jackson insisted that nullification was treason but South Carolinians responded angrily to the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 and forbade the collection of duties within the state.

• What: Authorized the president to use the military to see that acts of  Congress were obeyed (in South Carolina). 

• Jackson compelled Congress to reduce rates of tariff, but also granted the power to use military force against South Carolinians if necessary.

Effects in South Carolina: 

• Removed nullification plan for tariffs of 1828 & 1832- since compromise would lower it

• Nullified Force Bill- no need if tariffs would lower

Force Bill

1833- response to Clay’s Compromise Tariff

• Cause: Jackson insisted that nullification was treason but South Carolinians responded angrily to the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 and forbade the collection of duties within the state.

• What: Authorized the president to use the military to see that acts of  Congress were obeyed (in South Carolina). 

• Jackson compelled Congress to reduce rates of tariff, but also granted the power to use military force against South Carolinians if necessary.

Effects in South Carolina: 

• Removed nullification plan for tariffs of 1828 & 1832- since compromise would lower it

• Nullified Force Bill- no need if tariffs would lower

The Black Hawk War

Sauk and Fox Indians under Black Hawk fought white settlers in 1831-32 to regain their “stolen” land. ( Black Hawk believed he was pressured to sign the treaty).

Importance: Reinforced the determination of whites to remove all the tribes to the West.

Trigger for Indian Removal Act of 1830

Purpose/rationale for removal of Indians (Indian Removal Act)

Jackson wanted valuable land that the tribes still possessed.

• Jackson wanted Indians to move to the West. 

Goal: Remove them from all the lands east of the Mississippi.

Worcester v. Georgia

1832- Cherokee response to Indian Removal Act of 1830

• Cherokee tried to stop Georgia from taking their lands through an appeal in the Supreme Court.

• Court’s Ruling: Supreme Court stated that the state had no authority to negotiate with tribal representatives. (supported Indians)

• Results: 1835- Georgia and Andrew Jackson disapproved and instead continued the policy of Indian removal through a treaty that ceded to Georgia the tribe’s land in return for $5 million and a reservation west of the Mississippi.

  • Great majority of Cherokee disagreed →Jackson sent an army of 7,000 to drive them westward.

Trail of Tears

1838:

Where: Indians were required to travel to “Indian Territory”-Oklahoma 

• All “Five Civilized Tribes”- Cherokee, Creek, Seminole, Chickasaw, Choctaw, had to travel

  • Small group of Seminole Indians in Florida staged an uprising in 1835 to defend their land.

Importance: Many runaway black slaves were siding with Indian rebels + using guerrilla warfare.

• Although they had to move, mid 19th century Americans believed Indians could not be partners in the creation of societies in West; they are obstacles.

The Bank War

 Jackson was willing to use federal power against Indians. However, there was a resistance to fed. power in Jackson’s war against the bank

• Causes – Jackson’s hatred of the bank and Bank president Nicholas Biddle 

• Nicholas Biddle ran the bank and tried to put the institution on a sound and prosperous basis

 (more control).

“Soft-money” and “Hard-money” opposition factions.

Soft-money: State bankers and allies. 

• Objected to bank because it restrained state banks from issuing notes freely. 

• Believed in rapid economic growth and speculation

Hard-money: *Jackson was with “hard-money” faction. 

• Believed that coin was the only safe currency. 

• Embraced older ideas of“public virtue”

• Were suspicious of expansion and speculation

• Role of the Bank of the U.S during Jacksonian Era

1.  Held a monopoly on federal deposits

2. Provided credit to growing enterprises

3. Issued banknotes that served as a dependable medium of exchange

4. Managed smaller state banks.

• Jackson’s veto – impact

Jackson did not favor renewing the charter of the Bank which was to expire in 1836.

Clay and Webster helped Biddle to apply to Congress for a recharter bill in 1832.

But…

• Jackson vetoed it and Bank’s supporters in Congress failed to override the veto.

• Jackson weakened the bank by removing the government deposits and his ally Taney (attorney general)placed these deposits in state banks. 

Biddle believed that without the government deposits, the Bank’s resources were stretched too thin

 → He was right; financial conditions worsened in the winter of 1833-1834

Bank died in 1836→country was left with an unstable banking system leading to the Panic of 1837

The Whig Party: reasons for founding; main ideas/platform; which groups/types of people comprised it 

-Opposed Jackson’s use of power. Worked to limit power of “King Jackson”

The Whigs: descended from Federalist party (Hamilton)

● Were united in hatred of “King Andrew” Jackson

● Core supporters: states’ righters opposed to Jackson; supporters of the American System; northern industrialists/urban professionals; evangelical Protestants; wealthiest southern planters