Psychology Exam 2 (Sandi mclaughlin)

What is habituation

a decrease in responding to a stimulus after repeated pairings (baby introduced to red ball)

what is associative learning?

when an organism learns an association between two events. Conditioning is the process of learning these associations.(Pavlov)

what is observational learning?

occurs when a person observes and imitates anothers behavior.

what is acquisition?

the initial learning of the connection between the US and CS when these two stimuli are paired.

what is classical conditioning?

organisms learn to anticipate events (mint at the office) A type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the ability to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.

Pavlov

was the first researcher to do systematic research on learning and associative learning. He used a bell and food to get dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell.

Watson

studied classically conditioned emotional response. Did Little Albert experiment. Discovered little albert was afraid of loud noises and paired it with a white rat. eventually little albert was afraid of the white rat and then all furry white animals (generalization)

Be able to identify the neutral stimulus, conditioned stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, and conditioned

response in an example of classical conditioning

:)

what is stimulus generalization?

the tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response. (being afraid of lizards and geckos because they are similar)

What is counter conditioning?

a classical conditioning procedure for changing the relationship between the CS and CR

what is aversive conditioning

form of treatment that consists of pairing with something unpleasant

What is renewal

the recovery of a conditioned response when an organism is placed in a novel context.

what is spontaneous recovery

a process by which a conditioned response can recoccur after a time of delay.

what is placebo effect

a phenomenon where a person's physical or mental health improves after receiving an inert, "dummy" treatment (like a sugar pill or saline injection) that has no pharmacological benefit. Driven by the patient's expectation of improvement and the therapeutic context, it triggers real, measurable brain activity, such as the release of endorphins

Little Peter Experiment

The 1924 "Little Peter" experiment, conducted by Mary Cover Jones under J.B. Watson, successfully demonstrated that phobias in children could be reversed using behavioral techniques. By pairing a feared white rabbit with positive stimuli (food) and using gradual, controlled exposure, Jones helped a 2-year-old boy overcome his fear, pioneering counterconditioning and

define extinction

 the weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent.

Examples include ignoring a child's tantrums so they stop,

what are extinction bursts

increasement of responding (ex, elevator not going down keep pushing buttons)

what is conditioned taste aversion

more easily develop conditioning to a stimuli that triggers nausea in the real world.

biological prepardness

that we are built so that if we encounter something that makes you sick, youre body is conditioned to that (strawberry milk)

discrimination

the process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others. (baby scared of white rabbits but not cotton balls.)

higher order conditioning

occurs when a established conditioned stimulus (CS1) is paired with a new neutral stimulus (NS2), causing the neutral stimulus to eventually elicit the conditioned response (CR) without the original unconditioned stimulus (UCS) being presen

A dog learns to salivate to a bell (CS1) because it was paired with food. If a light (NS2) is then paired with the bell, the dog will eventually salivate to the light alone.

what is operant conditioning

learning that is controlled by the consequences of an organisms behavior

primary reinforcer

innately satisfying (food, water, sexual pleasure)

secondary reinforcer

become satisfying through experience, learned by repeated association with a preexisting reinforcer (money, green face at school, good grades)

delayed reinforcement

when there is a significant delay in the delivery of the reinforcer and the behavior.

immediate reinforcement

reinforcement is close to the behavior (more effective)

continuous reinforcement

Behavior reinforced every time it occurs

intermittent reinforcement

behavior reinforced only some of the time.

types of reinforcement schedules

differ based on whether they rely on the number of responses (Ratio) or the passage of time (Interval), and whether that requirement is predictable (Fixed) or unpredictable (Variable

positive reinforcement

behavior followed by addition of a desirable stimulus

negative reinforcement

behavior followed by removal of undesirable stimulus.

what is a token economy

when you use a secondary reinforcer to access scheduled privileges. (get a free coffee after so many purchases)

What increases the likelihood a behavior will continue? What decreases the likelihood a behavior will

continue?

-reinforcement increases the likelihood a behavior will continue

-punishment decreases the likelihood a behavior will continue.

shaping

a way to reinforce successive approximation toward a behavior

A child saying "wa" is reinforced, then "wata," and finally only "water".

chaining

links a number of interrelated behaviors to form a longer series by reinforcing each behavior in the chains.

premack principle

high probability behaviors can be used to reinforce low probability behaviors. (use something you want to do to get you to do what you dont want to do) Also referred to as grandmothers rule.

learned avoidance

when you learn you can avoid a negative stimulus by making a particular response.

learned helplessness

when you learn you have no control over negative outcomes.

applied behavior analysis

The term for applying techniques of behavior modification to people 

Can be applied to education settings, in business settings, and to treat autism

the first person to use ABA to treat autism was Ole Ivar Lovaas

The ABCs of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) stand for Antecedent, Behavior, and Consequence

negative punishment

followed by the removal of a desired stimulus

positive punishment

followed by addition of an aversive stimulus

disadvantages of punishment

-It tells the organism what not to do but it doesnt tell you what to do instead.

-It often creates anxiety (can interfere with future learning)

-Often encourages subversive behavior (learning how to get away with things)

-Certain types of punishment may create a model for aggression

what did we learn about the overall effectiveness of punishment?

most effective for immediate, short-term behavior suppression when applied instantly, consistently, and with appropriate intensity.

Who was Thorndike and what did he contribute to the research on learning? What type of experiment did

he do?

-Operant conditioning: learning that is controlled by the consequences of an organisms behavior

-Thorndike's law of effect: behaviors that are followed by pleasant outcomes are strengthened and behaviors followed by unpleasant outcomes are weakened.

-He did research with cats. Put the cats in the box with the latch and put food outside the box.

What is purposive behavior?

Purposive behavior (Tolman)

Much behavior is goal directed

Tolan did research with rats and divided them into 3 groups (believed they had cognitive path)

observational learning

occurs when a person observes and imitates anothers behavior.

Albert Bandura studied observational learning. What did his most well know study demonstrate?

albert Bandura (social cognitive theory)

what are the necessary components for observational learning to occur

Attention

Retention

Motor reproduction

Reinforcement

What is insight learning?

"Aha" learning, problem solving through sudden insight

Uses Cognition

Demonstrated with monkeys by kohler

What is latent learning?

Learning that occurs without reinforcement

Learning that is not applied until later

Thought that it involves cognitive maps

kohler studied what type of learning

insight

What are mirror neurons? What do we know about them?

Fire mirror like actions, allow use to experience pain, joy, etc

Ex. feeling the same emotions from the emotion of a movie

What does the research say about violent video games and aggressive behavior (the meta analysis)

130 studies and found a causal link between violent video games and aggression and particularly a link between aggressive behavior, thoughts, emotions, and also decreases in empathy, desensitization to violence, also a reduction in pro-social behavior in kids who play violent video games

What did the APA (American Psychological Association) conclude regarding violent video games and

aggression?

Research that does support causal link

Often people link school shooting to violent video games and there is not evidence for a true relationship between them

What was the supreme court decision in Brown vs Entertainment Merchants

In Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association (2011), the Supreme Court ruled 7–2 that video games are protected speech under the First Amendment, striking down a 2005 California law that banned selling violent video games to minors. The Court held that the state failed to prove a compelling interest in restricting access, as the games did not fall under the legal definition of obscenity

What are the disadvantages of harsh punishment

frequently produces negative, long-term, and counterproductive outcomes. While it may temporarily suppress behavior, research demonstrates it often fails to teach desirable alternatives and can increase the occurrence of the undesired response

What are the factors that influence degree of stress

Predictability of stressor

-If you know something is going to happen that is stressful you will be less stressed about it

Control over stressor

-When you feel like you have control over stressors you feel better

Improvement of (reduction in) stressor

-The perception of improvement lessens stress even if the situation is worse

Outlets for frustration

-Ex. music, sleep, journaling, exercise

What is instinctive drift?

Tendency for animals to revert back to instinctive behavior

Interferes with learning

What are three populations that are often studied in developmental psychology

infants, adolescents, and older adults

he three areas of study in developmental psychology

physical development (body, brain, motor skills, health), cognitive development (learning, memory, language, reasoning), and psychosocial/socio-emotional development (emotions, personality, social relationships)

Know the difference between chronological age and developmental age

developmental age: The point at which someone falls along a developmental continuum

chronological age: physical age

Be familiar with the definition of longitudinal study and cross sectional study and cross sequential design

Longitudinal studies follow the same subjects over time, while cross-sectional studies compare different groups at one point. Cross-sequential designs combine both, tracking multiple cohorts over time to analyze developmental changes while reducing time constraints

Know the difference between identical twins and fraternal twins

What happens if you ovulate two eggs and both get fertilized: dizygotic twins (fraternal)

What happens when the egg splits (identical twins)

monozygotic

Monozygotic (MZ) twins, commonly known as identical twins, are formed when a single fertilized egg (zygote) splits into two separate embryos, typically within the first two weeks of development

dizygotic

Dizygotic (fraternal) twins result from the fertilization of two separate eggs by two different sperm during the same pregnancy

What does the continuous development theory suggests about human development as compared to the

discontinuous theory

Continuous development theory suggests human growth is a gradual, cumulative, and smooth process—like walking up a slope—where skills are added incrementally over time, such as increasing vocabulary. Conversely, discontinuous theory proposes development occurs in distinct, qualitative stages (like climbing stairs), featuring sudden, abrupt changes in abilities

When does the germinal phase occur?

1-2 weeks

embryonic stage occurs

3-8 weeks

fetal stage occurs

2-9 months

What are the main obstacles to prenatal development?

Low birth weight

Premature birth

Teratogens

What is/are the best predictor(s) for healthy

development?

birth weight

What is the age of viability?

the age at which developing offspring can survive outside of the womb if given medical attention. (22 weeks

What is neonatal abstinence syndrome?

when a baby is born undergoing withdrawals from drugs the mother was on. (high-pitched cry, irritable, born with fever, can't console themselves, trouble sleeping)

What happens during synaptic pruning?

removal or replacement of unused synapsis

define teratogens

agents that can disrupt development of the fetus (no known safe amount

Be able to list several teratogens and the important main effects

Nicotine

Aspirin

Caffeine

Alcohol

Certain illnusses and viruses

STI's (louisiana has the highest rate)

Some antidepressants

Accutane (one of the most potent teratogen)

Illegal drugs

Marijuana (6% of women in the US take highly addictive drugs while pregnant)

Radiation

Shellfish (harvested from polluted waters)

Lead paint

German measles

What is fetal alcohol spectrum disorder?

(3 disorders) children born to mothers who drank alcohol will show both physical and cognitive disorders. (ex: flat filtrum, thin upper lip, upturned nose, flat nasal bridge, small head) they think its as common as autism

What does the literature say about drinking while pregnant? How much is too much?

no known safe amount, time, or type of alcohol

What is the risk associated with smoking during pregnancy?

abnormal bleeding

list Piaget's stages of cognitive development

-Sensorimotor Stage: (birth-2 years)

Coordinate sensations with movmeenets

Object permanence

Progress from reflexive action to symbolic thought

-Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)

Symbolic thinking words and images

Intuitive reasoning

Egocentricism

-Concrete Operational Stage (7-11)

Operational thinking

Classification skills

Reason logically in concrete contexts

-Formal Operational Stage (11-15 years)

Lasts through adulthood

Abstract and idealistic thought

Hypothetical deductive reasoning

the first stage is

sensorimotor stage (birth-2 years)

What is accommodation?

adjust/alter schemas to new info

what is assimilation

apply old schemas to new experiences

what is a schema

concepts or frameworks that organize info

Be able to recognize reflexes and why we assess them in infants.

Reflexes are genetically wired behaviors

Some are cruciual for survival

Come persist throughout life (coughing, yawning)

Some disappear with neurological development (gripping, rooting, startle)

Withdraw reflex: pull away from source of pain

Rooting: touching babys cheek causes him to turn towards the touch, open his mouth, and ssearch

Babinski: stroking the side of the babys foot will cause his big toe to extend up and fan out feet

moro/startle: extend arms when startled by a loud noise

Grasping: hold tightly to a finger

Stepping: move legs in walking motion

Crying

Restricted breathing: turn her head from side to side if cloth is placed over her face

Who is Vygotsky and what did he contribute?

Vygotsky's (Zone of Proximal Development)

Children learn with the help of adults and if we teach them in their zone of development thats how they learn.

Adult teaching you how to swim in the pool

What did we learn about temperament?

Temperment: an individuals behavioral style or characteristic way of responding (innate characteristics)

Three clusters of temperament

Easy

Difficult

Slow to warm up

Be very familiar with Harlow's research. What did Harlow's research contribute to what we know about

attachment?

Harry Harlow

-did a study on infant attachment (love). Took monkeys away from their mom and raised them with two wire monkey mothers. One had a bottle and the other had a cloth. comfort/food. The monkeys spent more time with the one that provided comfort

Who designed the strange situation? What was it? What did this experiment measure

Mary Ainsworth

-devised a research study to look at how we can measure attachment

-the strange situation: a series of comings and goings with a caregiver and their infant.

-Secure attachment: (the mother comes back in and baby is comforted.)

-Insecure attachment:

Insecure resistant (angry, hostile when mother comes back)

Insecure avoidant (unbothered when mother comes back)

Babies who are securely attached tend to explore more.

Know the parenting styles we reviewed during class and the characteristics of each

Authoritarian

Parents are controlling and punitive

Likely to occur in families under financial stress

May be affected by culture

Children may lack social skills, show poor initiative, and compare themselves to others

(Bc i said so)

Low in terms of warmth and high in demanding.

Authoritative

Parents encourage independence with limits

Parents warm and nurturing

Correlated with child's social competence, social responsibility, and resilience.

(reasoning for rules, flexible when needed to be)

High in warmth, high in demanding

Neglectful

Parents generally uninvolved

Correlated with less social competence and poor self-control in child

Permissive

Parents involved but place few limits

Correlated with child's poor social competence, lack of respect for others, poor self control

High warmth low demanding

Who was Erickson and what did his theory propose?

Erik Erikson: (development across the lifespan)

The 8 psychosocial stages of development:

Each stage represents a developmental task and a crisis that must be resolved.

First four changes: Childhood

Trust vs. mistrust: basis needs met by sensitive caregivers

Autonomy versus shame and doubt: discover and assert will of their own.

Initiative vs. guilt: challenged to assume responsibility

Industry vs. inferiority: mastering knowledge and intellectual skills

Intimacy vs. isolation

Identity vs. role confusion: if you don't form your identity and become confident you will be very confused.

Primary focus on case study

At what age does adolescence typically occur?

-starts age 10-12

-ends age 18-21

puberty

Two types of hormones lead to development of genitals and secondary sex characteristics (adrogens and estrogens)

What are primary and secondary sex characteristics?

Primary sex characteristics are physical traits present at birth directly involved in reproduction (e.g., ovaries, uterus, testes, penis). Secondary sex characteristics are features that emerge during puberty, signaling sexual maturity but are not directly part of the reproductive system (e.g., breasts, facial hair, voice deepening)

Know the levels of Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning and that he is associated with proposing this

theory

Preconventional: Behavior guided by punishments and reward

Conventional: Standards learned from parents and society

Postconventional: Contracts, rights, and abstract principles

what are the criticisms of his theory

Criticism of this study is what we say and do are not always consistent.

What are the other theories that explain moral development?

Gilligan's care-based ethics, Bandura's social learning, and Freud's psychoanalytic theory

What did we learn about prosocial behavior?

behavior intended to help someone else. Correlated with parental warmth and support. Executive functioning predicts greater prosocial behavior. Prosocial behavior predicts gains in executive function.

What is Heinz dilemma?

The Heinz dilemma is a 1958 moral reasoning scenario developed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg. It features a man, Heinz, whose wife is dying from cancer and needs a prohibitively expensive drug. When the druggist refuses to sell it cheaper or let him pay later, Heinz must decide whether to steal the drug to save her life.

What is Emerging adulthood? Be familiar with our discussion about Emerging adulthood. Who came up

with the term?

(jeff arnett)

-between adolescence and adulthood.

Its harder to get independent and on your own financially nowadays

emerging adulthood lasts from 18-29

Identify exploration, instability, self-focus, feeling "in between". Age of possibilities