real psych 10

social psychologists

scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

attribution theory

theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

attitudes

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts.

foot in the door phenomenon

tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

informational social influence

influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality

social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

deindividuation

loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

group polarization

enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

prejudice

an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members

stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.

discriminate

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

just world phenomenon

tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

ingroup

us

outgroup

them

ingroup bias

favoring of our own group

scapegoat theory

theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

other race effect

tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races.

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

frustration aggression principle

principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—creates anger, which can generate aggression

mere exposure effect

phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a romantic relationship

companionate love

deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

equity

condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it

self disclosure

act of revealing intimate aspects of ourselves to others

alturism

unselfish concern for the welfare of others

bystander effect

tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

reciprocity norm

expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

social responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help

conflict

perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.

social traps

situation in which the conflicting parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

mirror image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive.

self fulfilling prophecies

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment.

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.

personality

an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

psychodynamic theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences

psychoanalysis

Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts

unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

free association

a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassin

id

strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratificatio

superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

ego

the largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

psychosexual stages

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

oedipus complex

a boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father.

identification

the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents’ values into their developing superegos

fixate

in personality theory, according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved.

defense mechanism

, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

repression

basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

regression

Retreating to an earlier psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated

reaction formation

Switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites

projection

Disguising one’s own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

rationalization

Offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for one’s actions

displacement

Shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person

sublimation

Transferring of unacceptable impulses into socially valued motives

denial

Refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities

collective unconscious

Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history

projective tests

a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous images designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics

thematic apperception test

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

rorschach inkblot test

the most widely used projective test; a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.

humanistic theorists

theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth

self actualization

the process of fulfilling our potential

self transcendence

meaning, purpose, and identity beyond the self

unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

self concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the question, “Who am I?

traits

characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.

openness

Imaginative, prefers variety, independent

conscientiousness

Organized, careful, disciplined

extraversion

Sociable, fun-loving, affectionate

agreeableness

Soft-hearted, trusting, helpful

neuroticism

Anxious, insecure, self-pitying

social cognitive perspective

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits (including their thinking) and their social context

behavioral approach

focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.

self

assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions

self esteem

one’s feelings of high or low self-worth

self efficacy

one’s sense of competence and effectiveness.

self serving bias

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably.

individualist

giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

collectivist

giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly.