BIO 120

What is the overall biochemical equation for cellular respiration?

C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (ATP)

How much ATP is produced during aerobic respiration?

36-38 ATP molecules per glucose, and requires oxygen

How much ATP is produced during Anaerobic process (Fermentation)?

2 ATP and does not require oxygen (Relies solely on energy from glycolysis)

In glycolysis, what is the ATP investment vs net gain?

Investment: 2 ATP; Net gain 2 ATP

What is substrate level phosphorylation?

A process where a phosphate group is transferred directly from a substrate to ADP to form ATP; occurs during glycolysis & the citric acid cycle

What is fermentation?

An anaerobic process in the cytoplasm that extracts energy from carbohydrates without oxygen; purpose to regenerate NAD+ from NADH

What is fed state?

High glucose drives glycolysis & aerobic respiration in mitochondria

What is fasting/starvation state?

The liver uses the cori cycle to convert lactase back to glucose (gluconeogenesis) to feed other tissues

What are the alternative fates of pyruvate in anaerobic/lactic acid production?

Without oxygen, pyruvate is reduced to lactate (in animals/muscle cells) or ethanol & CO2 (yeast)

What is an electrochemical gradient in the context of the ETC?

A concentrated gradient of hydrogen ions (H+) created by pumping ions across the inner mitochondrial membrane

What is the final electron acceptor in the ETC?

Oxygen (O2)

Cell wall

Supports & protects

Stroma

Fluid space for the calvin cycle

Vacuole

Maintains turgor pressure; organelle; storage sac for water, nutrients & waste

Plasmodesmata

Channels for cell-to-cell communication

Chloroplasts

Main structure/site for photosynthesis

Thylakoids

Disks where light reactions occur

Grana

Stacks of thylakoids

Chlorophyll

Primary pigments that absorb light (Green)

Carotenoids

Accessory pigments (yellow, orange, red)

Xylem

Transports water/minerals; only in vascular plant

Phloem

Transports sugar; vascular plants

How does the calvin cycle function in relation to the TCA & ETC

It is the “reverse” of respiration logic; it uses ATP & NADPH (from light reactions) to fix CO2 into glucose

What is redox reaction? (Include Mnemonics)

A reaction involving the transfer of electrons

OIL RIG

Oxidation is loss, Reduction is gain

LEO says GER

Lose electron oxidation, Gain electron Reduction

G1

recovery & growth phase

G0

non-dividing state for specialized cells like nerve and muscle cells.

Prophase

(condensing chromatin)

Metaphase

Aligning at metaphase plate

Anaphase

Sister chromatids separate

Telophase

new nuclei form

Chromatin

DNA + Histones

Chromatids

identical halves of a duplicated chromosome

Chromosomes

The condensed unit of genetic material

Non-disjunction

The failure of chromosomes to separate in meiosis

Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome)

Presence of 3 copies of chromosome 21

Cyclins

signal the cell to proceed (through checkpoints)

checkpoints

G1, G2, M

p53

Stops the cycle at G1, if DNA is damaged to allow repair or trigger apoptosis

Benign

local/encapsulated

Metastatic

spreads

Angiogenesis

induced by VEGF, creates blood vessels for the tumor

Telomeres

maintained by mutations in telomerase, making cancer cells “immortal”

Spermatogenesis (males)

produces 4 functional sperm

Oogenesis (females)

produces 1 functional egg & 2-3 non-functional polar bodies

Differentiate Prokaryotic Binary Fission

involves replicating a single ring of DNA attached to the plasma membrane; its asexual & lacks the spindle-driven stages of mitosis

What does semiconservative replication mean?

Each daughter DNA molecule consists of 1 old parental strand & 1 newly synthesized strand

Helicase

unwinds/unzips helix

SSBP

Keeps strands apart

Primase

Lays RNA primer

Polymerase

Synthesizes DNA (5’ to 3’)

Ligase

seals Okazaki fragments

Topoisomerase

Relieves winding strain

Leading strands

Continuous toward the fork

Lagging strands

Discontinuous in okazaki fragments away from fork

How does Lac Operon work when glucose is absent?

Lactose removes the repressor; low glucose causes cAMP to rise & bring CAP, which helps RNA polymerase bind the promoter for maximal expression

Point mutation

changes 1 nucleotide (one codon)

Frameshift mutation

Insertion or deletion that shifts the reading frame, always resulting in non-functional protein

Steps for PCR?

Denaturation -> Annealing -> Extension