psychosocial module 1

What are behavioural learning theories?

Behavioural learning theories explain learning as changes in behaviour resulting from experience with stimuli and consequences. They focus on observable behaviours rather than internal mental processes.

Who was Ivan Pavlov?

Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who discovered classical conditioning, a type of learning where behaviour is learned through associations between stimuli.

What is classical conditioning?

Classical conditioning is a type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a response, eventually triggering the response itself.

What is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?

An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning.

Example: Food causing salivation.

What is an unconditioned response (UCR)?

An unconditioned response is the natural, automatic reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.

Example: Salivation when food is present.

What is a neutral stimulus (NS)?

A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that does not initially produce the target response.

Example: A bell before conditioning.

What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?

A conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the unconditioned stimulus, triggers a learned response.

Example: The bell after being paired with food.

What is a conditioned response (CR)?

A conditioned response is a learned reaction to the conditioned stimulus.

Example: Salivating when hearing the bell.

What conditions make classical conditioning strongest?

Short time interval between stimuli

Repeated pairings of stimuli

Strong natural response to the unconditioned stimulus

What is extinction in classical conditioning?

Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, causing the conditioned response to weaken or disappear.

Who was B.F. Skinner?

B.F. Skinner was an American psychologist who developed the theory of operant conditioning, which explains learning through consequences of behaviour.

What is operant conditioning?

Operant conditioning is a form of learning where behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences, such as rewards or punishments.

What is reinforcement?

Reinforcement is any consequence that increases the likelihood a behaviour will occur again.

What is positive reinforcement?

Positive reinforcement occurs when a rewarding stimulus is added after a behaviour, increasing the chance the behaviour will repeat.

Example: Giving a child praise for cleaning their room.

What is punishment in operant conditioning?

Punishment is a consequence that decreases the likelihood a behaviour will occur again. 

Example: Removing privileges after misbehaviour.

What type of behaviour does operant conditioning focus on?

Voluntary behaviours that are performed intentionally rather than automatic reflexes. 

Cognitive & Social Cognitive Theories

Jean Piaget – Cognitive Development

Who was Jean Piaget?

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who developed the theory of cognitive development, explaining how children actively construct knowledge through interaction with their environment.

What is cognitive development?

Cognitive development refers to the growth of thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, and understanding throughout life.

What is the sensorimotor stage?

The sensorimotor stage (0–2 years) is the first stage of Piaget’s theory where infants learn through senses and physical actions.

What is egocentrism?

Egocentrism is the inability to understand another person’s perspective, believing that everyone sees the world the same way they do.

What is the preoperational stage?

The preoperational stage (2–7 years) involves:

 

Symbolic thinking

Imagination

Egocentric thinking

Intuitive reasoning

What is symbolic thinking?

Symbolic thinking is the ability to use words, images, or objects to represent something else.

What is intuitive reasoning?

Intuitive reasoning is when children rely on instinct rather than logical thinking to explain events.

What is the concrete operational stage?

The concrete operational stage (7–11 years) involves:

 

Logical thinking

Understanding conservation

Perspective-taking

What is conservation?

Conservation is the understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance.

What is perspective-taking?

Perspective-taking is the ability to understand another person's thoughts or viewpoint.

 

What is the formal operational stage?

The formal operational stage (12+ years) involves:

 

Abstract thinking

Hypothetical reasoning

Identity development

What is abstract reasoning?

Abstract reasoning is the ability to think about concepts that are not physically present, such as ideas, values, and theories.

Who was Albert Bandura?

Albert Bandura was a Canadian-American psychologist who developed Social Learning Theory, explaining that people learn through observing others.

 

What is social learning theory?

Social learning theory states that learning occurs through observing, imitating, and modelling the behaviour of others.

What is observational learning?

Observational learning occurs when individuals learn by watching others and imitating their actions.

What is modelling?

Modelling is the process of copying behaviours demonstrated by role models.

What role do role models play in learning?

Role models influence behaviour because people are more likely to imitate individuals they admire, respect, or view as authority figures.

Who was Lev Vygotsky?

Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who proposed that cognitive development is shaped by social interaction and cultural influences.

What is sociocultural theory?

Sociocultural theory explains that learning occurs through social interaction and is influenced by culture, language, and environment.

What is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)?

The Zone of Proximal Development is the difference between:

 

What a child can do independently

What they can achieve with guidance from others

Who are “more knowledgeable others”?

More knowledgeable others are individuals with greater knowledge or skills who help guide learning, such as:

 

Parents

Teachers

Peers

Caregivers

Why is language important in Vygotsky’s theory?

Language helps children internalise knowledge and develop inner thought processes.

Who was Abraham Maslow?

Abraham Maslow was an American psychologist who proposed the Hierarchy of Needs, explaining motivation based on fulfilling human needs.

 

What is the hierarchy of needs?

A five-level pyramid of human needs that must be satisfied sequentially to achieve full personal development.

What are physiological needs?

Physiological needs are basic survival needs, including:

 

Food

Water

Sleep

Oxygen

What are safety needs?

Safety needs include:

 

Security

Shelter

Protection from danger

Stability

What are love and belonging needs?

These involve social relationships, including:

 

Friendships

Family relationships

Romantic relationships

Social connection

What are esteem needs?

Esteem needs involve self-respect and recognition, including:

 

Achievement

Confidence

Respect from others

What is self-actualization?

Self-actualization is the highest level of development, involving:

 

Personal growth

Creativity

Achieving one's full potential

 Who was John Bowlby?

John Bowlby was a British psychologist who developed attachment theory, explaining the importance of early caregiver relationships.

What is attachment theory?

Attachment theory states that early emotional bonds between infants and caregivers influence social, emotional, and psychological development.

What is secure attachment?

Secure attachment occurs when caregivers are consistent, responsive, and supportive, leading to:

 

Trust

Emotional stability

Healthy relationships

What is insecure attachment?

Insecure attachment occurs when caregiving is inconsistent, neglectful, or unresponsive, potentially causing:

 

Anxiety

Relationship difficulties

Emotional insecurity

Psychodynamic Theories

Who was Sigmund Freud?

Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who developed psychoanalysis and psychosexual development theory, emphasising the influence of the unconscious mind.

What is psychoanalysis?

Psychoanalysis is a theory suggesting that unconscious thoughts, desires, and childhood experiences influence behaviour.

What is the id?

The id is the part of the mind that contains primitive desires and instinctual drives, operating on the pleasure principle.

What is the ego?

The ego is the rational part of the mind that mediates between the id and reality.

What is the superego?

The superego represents moral values and social rules, acting as the conscience.

What is the oral stage?

Oral stage (0–1 year):

 

Pleasure focused on sucking and feeding

Fixation may lead to oral habits (smoking, overeating).

What is the anal stage?

Anal stage (1–3 years):

 

Focus on toilet training

Can lead to anal-retentive or anal-expulsive traits.

What is the phallic stage?

Phallic stage (3–6 years):

 

Focus on genital awareness

Development of gender identity

Includes Oedipus/Electra complex.

What is the latency stage?

Latency stage (7–13 years):

 

Sexual impulses dormant

Focus on learning, friendships, and skill development

What is the genital stage?

Genital stage (puberty onward):

 

Development of mature sexual relationships

Balance between id, ego, and superego.

Who was Erik Erikson?

Erik Erikson was a psychologist who expanded Freud’s ideas, focusing on social and emotional development across the lifespan.

What is psychosocial development?

Psychosocial development describes how social interactions and personal experiences shape identity and personality throughout life.

 

What is the stage Trust vs Mistrust?

(0–2 years)

 

Infants learn whether caregivers are reliable and supportive.

 

Positive outcome: Trust and security

Negative outcome: Fear and mistrust

 

What is Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt?

(2–4 years)

 

Children develop independence and self-control.

 

Positive outcome: Confidence

Negative outcome: Shame and doubt

What is Initiative vs Guilt?

(4–5 years)

 

Children begin planning activities and exploring.

 

Positive outcome: Initiative

Negative outcome: Guilt about desires

What is Industry vs Inferiority?

(5–12 years)

 

Children develop skills and competence.

 

Positive outcome: Confidence in abilities

Negative outcome: Feelings of inferiority

What is Identity vs Role Confusion?

(13–19 years)

 

Adolescents explore personal identity and beliefs.

 

Positive outcome: Strong identity

Negative outcome: Confusion about roles

What is Intimacy vs Isolation?

 (20–40 years)

 

Focus on forming close relationships.

 

Positive outcome: Healthy relationships

Negative outcome: Loneliness

What is Generativity vs Stagnation?

(40–65 years)

 

Adults focus on contributing to society and guiding the next generation.

 

Positive outcome: Productivity and care

Negative outcome: Stagnation

What is Ego Integrity vs Despair?

(65+ years)

 

Older adults reflect on life.

 

Positive outcome: Life satisfaction

Negative outcome: Regret and despair