T&E Part #4: c. 1900-present (APWH)

Armenian Genocide

Campaign of extermination undertaken by the Ottomans against two million of this ethnic minority living in Ottoman territory during World War I.

Balfour Declaration

British policy from 1917 that supported the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

Black Hand

Pre-WWI secret Serbian society, a member of which assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, sparking the outbreak of WWI.

Bolshevik

Russian communist party headed by Lenin.

Central Powers

WWI term for the alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman empire.

Dreadnoughts

A class of British battleships whose heavy armaments made all other battleships obsolete overnight.

February Revolution

1917 uprising in Russia that led to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the end of the Romanov dynasty, setting the stage for later Bolshevik control.

Fourteen Points

Idealistic post-WWI peace proposal by Woodrow Wilson that called for self-determination, open diplomacy, and the creation of an international peacekeeping organization.

Gallipoli

Failed Allied campaign during WWI to take control of the Dardanelles and open a supply route to Russia; resulted in heavy casualties, especially among Australian and New Zealand forces.

Home front

Term made popular in World War I and II for the civilian "front" that was symbolic of the greater demands of total war.

League of Nations

Forerunner of the United Nations, project of Woodrow Wilson, although its effectiveness was limited by the United States refusal to join.

October Revolution

1917 seizure of power in Russia by the Bolsheviks, who overthrew the provisional government and established a communist regime.

Paris Peace Conference

1919 meeting of the victorious Allied powers to negotiate the terms of peace after WWI; led to several treaties, including the Treaty of Versailles.

Self-determination

Belief popular in World War I and after that every peoples should have the right to determine their own political destiny. The belief was often cited, but ignored, by the Great Powers

Sykes-Picot Treaty

Secret 1917 treaty between the British and French, with the agreement of Russia, to divide the modern Middle East between them after the end of WWI.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

1918 peace treaty between the new Bolshevik government of Russia and the Central Powers, ending Russia's involvement in WWI and ceding large territories to Germany.

Treaty of Versailles

1919 treaty between the victorious Entente powers and the defeated Germany at the end of WWI, which laid the blame for the war on Germany and exacted harsh reparations.

Triple Alliance

Pre-WWI alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.

Triple Entente

Pre-WWI alliance of England, France, and Russia.

Twenty-one Demands

1915 list of demands issued by Japan to China seeking increased political and economic control; met with limited acceptance and international criticism.

Zimmerman Telegram

Secret communication from Germany to Mexico in 1917 proposing a military alliance against the United States; its interception helped bring the U.S. into WWI.

Black Thursday

October 24, 1929, the day the U.S. stock market crashed, marking the beginning of the Great Depression as panicked investors sold off massive amounts of stock, causing widespread financial chaos.

Collectivization of Agriculture

Process beginning in the late 1920s by which Stalin forced the Russian peasants off their own land and onto huge farms run by the state; millions dying in the process.

Economic nationalism

Economic policies pursued by many governments affected by the Great Depression in which the nation tries to become economically self-sufficient by imposing high tariffs on foreign goods. The policy served to exacerbate the damaging effects of the Depression around the world.

Eugenics

Late 19th and early 20th century movement that sought to improve the gene pool of the human race by encouraging those deemed fit to hvae more children, and discourage those deemed unfit from reproducing. The movement was deeply tied to racism, and adopted by the Nazi regime in Germany to justify extermination of "undesirable" populations.

Dollar diplomacy

U.S. foreign policy in the early 20th century, especially under President Taft, that used economic investment and loans to extend American influence in Latin America and East Asia rather than direct military intervention.

Good Neighbor Policy

U.S. foreign policy under President Franklin D. Roosevelt aimed at improving relations with Latin America by renouncing armed intervention and promoting mutual respect and economic cooperation.

India Act

1935 British Act that transferred to India the institutions of a self-governing state.

Indian National Congress

Major Indian political party founded in the late 19th century to promote greater Indian participation in government; it became the principal leader of the Indian independence movement under figures like Gandhi and Nehru.

Long March

1934-1935 military retreat of the Chinese Communist forces to evade pursuit by the Nationalist army; the grueling journey across thousands of miles helped solidify Mao Zedong's leadership and became a symbol of revolutionary endurance.

May Fourth Movement

Chinese movement that began 4 May 1919 with a desire to eliminate imperialist influences and promote national unity.

Mukden Incident

1931 staged explosion by Japanese troops on a Japanese-owned railway in Manchuria, used as a pretext for invading and occupying the region in violation of international agreements.

pan-Africanism

Ideological and political movement that emphasized the unity of all people of African descent around the world and sought to end colonial rule and promote cultural and political solidarity.

Satyagraha

"Truth and firmness" a term associated with Gandhi's policy of nonviolent resistence.

United Fruit Company

American corporation that controlled vast territories and infrastructure in Central America and the Caribbean during the 20th century; it exercised significant political and economic influence, often symbolizing U.S. imperialism in the region.

Allied Powers

Alliance during World War II consisting primarily of the United States, the Soviet Union, Great Britain, and China, which opposed the Axis Powers.

Anschluss

1938 union of Austria with Nazi Germany, achieved through pressure and intimidation rather than formal conquest; seen as an early act of German aggression before WWII.

Appeasement

British and French policy in the 1930's that tried to maintain peace in Europe in the face of German aggression by making concessions.

Auschwitz

Camp established by the Nazi regime in occupied Poland, which functioned both as a concentration camp and an extermination camp. Approximately one million Jews were killed there.

Axis Powers

Alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan during World War II, which sought to expand their territories through military conquest.

Battle of Britain

Air campaign waged by the German Luftwaffe against the United Kingdom in 1940, which marked the first major defeat of Hitler's forces and prevented a German invasion of Britain.

Bay of Pigs

Failed 1961 U.S.-backed invasion of Cuba by Cuban exiles attempting to overthrow Fidel Castro; the event was a major embarrassment for the Kennedy administration.

Berlin Wall

Barrier built in 1961 by East Germany with Soviet support to prevent East Berliners from fleeing to West Berlin; it became a powerful symbol of Cold War division until its fall in 1989.

Blitzkrieg

German style of rapid attack through the use of armor and air power that was used in Poland, Norway, Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands, and France, in 1939-1940.

Brezhnev Doctrine

Soviet policy that claimed the right to invade any socialist country faced with internal or external enemies.

Cold war

Period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies from the late 1940s to the early 1990s, marked by ideological conflict, arms races, and proxy wars.

Comfort women

Mainly Korean, Taiwanese, and Manchurian women who were forced into service by the Japanese army to serve as prostitutes to the Japanese troops during WWII.

Cuban missile crisis

1962 confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union over the placement of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba; it brought the world to the brink of nuclear war before a negotiated withdrawal.

D-Day

June 6, 1944 Allied invasion of Nazi-occupied France at Normandy; it marked a turning point in World War II in Europe by opening a western front against Germany.

de-Stalinization

Reform process initiated by Nikita Khrushchev in the 1950s aimed at denouncing Stalin's abuses, reducing the use of terror, and relaxing censorship in the Soviet Union.

Detente

A reduction in cold war tension between the United States and Soviet Union from 1969 to 1975.

Domino theory

Cold War belief held by U.S. policymakers that if one nation fell to communism, neighboring countries would soon follow, justifying American intervention around the world.

Final solution

Nazi plan to systematically exterminate the Jewish population of Europe through the use of concentration camps, mass shootings, and gas chambers.

German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

1939 agreement between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union to not attack each other; included a secret protocol to divide Eastern Europe between them.

Hiroshima

Japanese city destroyed by the first atomic bomb on August 6, 1945; tens of thousands were killed instantly, with many more dying from radiation exposure in the aftermath.

Holocaust

German attempt in World War II to exterminate the Jews of Europe.

Iwo Jima

Fierce battle in 1945 between U.S. and Japanese forces on a small island near Japan; its capture allowed the U.S. to launch direct attacks on the Japanese mainland.

Kamikaze

A Japanese term meaning "divine wind" that is related to the storms that destroyed Mongol invasion fleets. The term is symbolic of Japanese isolation and was later taken by suicide pilots in WWII.

Lebensraum

German term meaning "living space" and associated with Hitler and his goal of carving out territory in the east for an expanding Germany.

Luftwaffe

German air force during World War II, responsible for carrying out aerial bombardments and supporting ground invasions.

Manchukuo

Puppet state established by Japan in northeastern China (Manchuria) after the 1931 invasion; it was ruled by a puppet government but controlled by the Japanese military.

Marshall Plan

US Plan that offered financial and other economic aid to all European states that had suffered from World war II, including Soviet bloc states.

Munich Conference

1938 meeting between Germany, Great Britain, Italy, and France in which attendees agreed to German expansion in Czechoslovakia. The conference is known for its concessions to Hitler.

Nagasaki

Second Japanese city destroyed by an atomic bomb, dropped by the U.S. on August 9, 1945; contributed to Japan's decision to surrender, ending WWII.

NATO

North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a military alliance formed in 1949 between the United States, Canada, and Western European nations to provide collective security against the Soviet Union.

Okinawa

Major battle in 1945 that resulted in one of the bloodiest confrontations of the Pacific War; the island was critical for launching an invasion of mainland Japan.

Operation Barbarossa

Code name for the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941; it marked a turning point in WWII when Germany opened a second front and faced fierce Soviet resistance.

Pearl Harbor

Surprise Japanese attack on the U.S. naval base in Hawaii on December 7, 1941, which led to the United States' entry into World War II.

Prague Spring

Period in 1968 in which the communist leader of Czechoslovakia launched a reform movement aimed at softening Soviet-style rule. The movement was crushed with Russian forces invaded.

Rape of Nanjing

Japanese conquest and destruction of the Chinese city of Nanjing in the 1930s.

Spanish Civil War

Conflict from 1936 to 1939 between the Republicans, who were supported by communists and democrats, and the Nationalists, led by Franco and supported by fascist regimes in Germany and Italy; resulted in a fascist dictatorship.

Stalingrad

Major Soviet victory over German forces in 1942-1943 during World War II; one of the bloodiest battles in history and a key turning point on the Eastern Front.

Sudetenland

German-speaking region of Czechoslovakia annexed by Nazi Germany in 1938 with the approval of Western powers during the Munich Conference.

Truman Doctrine

US policy instituted in 1947 in which the US would follow an interventionist foreign policy to contain communism.

United Nations

Successor to the League of Nations, an association of sovereign nations that attempts to find solutions to global problems.

Vichy

Collaborative regime established in southern France after the German occupation in 1940; nominally independent but aligned with and controlled by Nazi Germany.

Wannsee

1942 conference held by senior Nazi officials to coordinate the implementation of the Final Solution, the systematic extermination of the Jewish population.

Warsaw Pact

Military alliance formed by Soviet bloc nations in 1955 in response to rearmament of West Germany and its inclusion in NATO.

African National Congress

South African Political Party formed in 1912 that provided consistent opposition to the apartheid state, and eventually became the majority party at the end of the apartheid era in 1994.

Apartheid

South African system of "separateness" that was implemented in 1948 and that maintained the black majority in a position of political, social, and economic subordination.

Decolonization

Process by which former colonies archived their independence, as with the newly emerging African nations in the 1950s and 1960s.

Geneva Conference

1954 meeting between major powers to resolve issues in Asia, particularly the future of Vietnam after the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu; it temporarily divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel, setting the stage for further conflict.

Great Leap Forward

1958-1961 Chinese campaign initiated by Mao Zedong to rapidly transform China from an agrarian society into a socialist society through collective farming and industrial projects; it led to widespread famine and the deaths of millions.

Cultural Revolution (Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution)

1966-1976 movement launched by Mao Zedong to preserve Chinese communism by purging capitalist and traditional elements from society; led to widespread persecution, destruction of cultural heritage, and social upheaval.

Intifada

Palestinian mass movement against Israeli rule in the Gaza Strip and other occupied territories.

Iranian Revolution

1979 overthrow of the U.S.-backed Shah of Iran and the establishment of an Islamic republic under Ayatollah Khomeini; marked a dramatic shift from secular monarchy to religious theocracy.

Islamism

Political ideology that seeks to reorder government and society according to Islamic law and values; often in reaction to perceived Western imperialism and secularism.

Muslim League

Political organization in British India that advocated for the interests of Muslims; played a central role in the creation of Pakistan as a separate Muslim state in 1947.

Nonaligned Movement

Movement in which leaders of former colonial states sought to assert their independence from either Soviet or US domination. Initial meeting was held in 1955.

Partition of India

Period immediately following Indian and Pakistani independence in 1947, in which millions of Muslims sought to move to Pakistan and millions of Hindus sought to move to Pakistan from India. It was marked by brutal sectarian violence, and the deaths of between one half million and a million people.

Suez Crisis

1956 conflict in which Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal, leading to an invasion by Britain, France, and Israel; international pressure, especially from the U.S. and Soviet Union, forced their withdrawal, signaling the decline of European colonial influence.

Tiananmen Square

1989 pro-democracy student protest in Beijing that was violently suppressed by the Chinese government; became a global symbol of authoritarian repression.

Viet Cong

Communist guerrilla fighters in South Vietnam who opposed the U.S.-backed South Vietnamese government during the Vietnam War; supported by North Vietnam.

Vietnamization

President Richard Nixon's strategy of turning the Vietnam War over to the South Vietnamese.

al-Qaeda

Militant Isllamist organization founded by Osama bin Laden in 1988, which was responsible for the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States.

BRICs

Acronym for the fast-growing and developing economies of Brazil, Russia, India, and China.

Bush Doctrine

A set of policies that advocated preemptive strikes by the United States against potential enemies instead of containment or deterrence.

Climate change

Long-term alterations in global temperature and weather patterns, largely driven by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial emissions.

European Union

Established by the Maastricht Treatiy in 1993, a supranational organization for even greater economic and political integration.

Feminist Movement

Global movement, especially prominent in the 20th century, advocating for political, economic, and social equality between the sexes, with major achievements in voting rights, education, and workplace access.