AP Exam Review: All terms- AP Psychology (Myers 10th Edition)

Wilhelm Wundt

pioneering psychologist who established the first psychology lab at the University of Leipzig

Edward Bradford Titchener

student of Wundt and psychologist that helped found structuralism, or the usage of introspection to discover the mind's structure

structuralism

early perspective that the mind operates by combining subjective emotions and objective sensations; the examination of basic cognitive structures pioneered by Wundt and Titchener

William James

philosopher-psychologist who pioneered functionalism, considering the evolved functions of our thoughts and feelings

functionalism

early perspective that sought to consider the evolved functions of our thoughts and feelings, not just what the brain did; encouraged explorations of down-to-earth emotions, memories, willpower, habits, and streams of consciousness

Mary Whiton Calkins

student of James, pioneering memory psychologist, and first female president of the American Psychological Association (APA)

Margaret Floy Washburn

first female psychology Ph.D. recipient, having also written the book "The Animal Mind"

John B. Watson

Pioneer of the behaviorist perspective, having worked with Rosalie Rayner on his famous "Little Albert" experiment showing conditioned responses on a baby

behaviorism

perspective in the early 1900's that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2)

Freudian psychology

perspective in the early 1900's that emphasized the way our unconscious thought processes and emotional responses to childhood experiences affect our behavior

humanistic psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth; first appeared in the 1960's, led by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow

cognitive revolution

second group of psychologists in the 1960's that rebelled against the behaviorist perspective, arguing for a returned focus on mental processes

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of the two ideas

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

neuroscience perspective

modern perspective focusing on how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences

evolutionary perspective

modern perspective focusing on how the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes

behavior genetics

modern perspective focusing on how our genes and our environment influence our individual differences

cognitive perspective

modern perspective focusing on how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information

social-cultural perspective

modern perspective focusing on how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

positive psychology

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities thrive

community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one could have foreseen it

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definition

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, "human intelligence" may be operationally defined as "what an intelligence test measures"

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

population

all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn (NOTE: except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole form of this)

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors

experimental group

in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

control group

in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have receive the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

dependent variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

informed consent

an ethical procedure that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

biological perspective

perspective concerned with the links between biology and behavior. Includes psychologists working in neuroscience, behavior genetics, and evolutionary psychology

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons' enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neurons, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

acetylcholine (ACh)

neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, and memory; deterioration of neurons that produce it often accompanies Alzheimer's disease

dopamine

neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion; oversupply is linked to schizophrenia, undersupply is linked to tremors and decreased mobility in Parkinson's disease

serotonin

neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; undersupply is linked to depression, with some antidepressant drugs raising its levels

norepinephrine

neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal; undersupply can depress mood

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

major inhibitory neurotransmitter, with an undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia

glutamate

major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory; oversupply can overstimulate brain, producing migraines or seizures (which is why some people avoid MSG that contains this compound)

endorphins

"morphine within" - natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of its internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress

pituitary gland

the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

hypothalamus

brain region controlling the pituitary gland

thyroid gland

endocrine gland that affects metabolism

parathyroid gland

endocrine gland that helps regulate blood calcium levels

pancreas

endocrine gland that regulates blood sugar levels

testis

endocrine gland that secretes male sex hormones

ovary

endocrine gland that secretes female sex hormones

lesion

tissue destruction; in the case of a brain, a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

electroencephalogram (EEG)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

PET (positron emission tomography) scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue; shows brain anatomy

fMRI (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans; shows brain function

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions

medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla