observational techniques and design
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21 Terms
naturalistic observation
Behaviour recorded in its normal environment
Controlled observation
Some variables controlled, often in a lab setting
Covert observation
Participants unaware they are being observed
Overt observation
Participants know they are being observed
Participant observation
researcher joins the group being observed
non-participant observation
researcher remains separate
evaluation of naturalistic observation
High external validity (real‑life behaviour); but low control, replication difficult, observer bias possible
evaluation of controlled observation
More control, easier replication, more reliable; lower ecological validity, demand characteristics (if overt)
evaluation of covert observation
Reduces demand characteristics (behaviour more natural); ethical issues (no informed consent, invasion of privacy)
evaluation of overt observation
Ethical (informed consent); demand characteristics possible (reactivity)
evaluation of participant observation
Insight into behaviour, can access hidden behaviours; loss of objectivity, risk of ‘going native’, ethical issues
evaluation of non-participant observation
More objective, less influence on behaviour; may miss subtle details, less insight
behaviour categories should…
Must be operationalised (clear, measurable).
Must be mutually exclusive (no overlap, e.g., ‘smiling’ and ‘grinning’ – too similar).
Should cover all possible behaviours (exhaustive).
Event sampling
tally each time a specific behaviour occurs
strengths of event sampling
captures rare events, good for frequent behaviours.
limitation of event sampling
may miss context, overwhelming if too many behaviours, can lose sequence.
time sampling
record behaviour at fixed time intervals (e.g., every 30 seconds)
strengths of time sampling
less demanding, easier to compare time periods, more manageable
limitations of time sampling
may miss behaviours between intervals, not good for rare events, can miss context.
Inter‑observer reliability
multiple observers independently record the same behaviour; their results are correlated
inter-observer reliability should be…
≥ +0.8