Chapter 5: Part 2

Upanishads, Buddhism, Hinduism, Confucianism & Taoism

From the Sanskrit root 'sad' ('to sit,' 'to settle,' 'to approach') with the prefixes 'upa' ('near') and 'ni' ('down') — meaning 'a sitting down near.' It reflects the seeker sitting at the teacher's feet to receive spiritual instruction.

What is the etymological meaning of 'Upanishad'?

To realize the infinite — the Absolute, Brahman, or the Self. The emphasis is on experiencing the Absolute rather than merely learning about it; it is a liberation and the highest bliss.

According to the Upanishads, what is the goal of life?

In India in the 5th century BC, later spreading across Asia. It is NOT based on belief in a god or gods, but is founded on the teachings of its leader, the Buddha.

Where and when did Buddhism begin, and is it based on belief in a god?

He was born Siddhatta Gotama, a prince of the Shakya tribe in an area now part of Nepal (5th century BC). He left his privileged life to seek enlightenment. 'Buddha' means 'the enlightened one.'

Who was the Buddha, and what does the name mean?

That life is part of a repeating cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. Following his path allows people to break free of this cycle and achieve the state of enlightenment.

What did the Buddha teach about the nature of life?

(a) Suffering is an essential fact of human existence; (b) suffering is caused by desire; (c) suffering can be overcome by doing away with desire; (d) the proper way to do this is to follow the Eightfold Path.

What are the Four Noble Truths?

Right views, right thinking, right speech, right action, right way of life, right endeavor, right mindfulness, and right meditation.

List the Noble Eightfold Path.

The moral guidance of the Noble Eightfold Path. Buddhists dress practically (neither fancy clothes nor rags), eat simple meals, and avoid both feasting and fasting — a balance between luxury and hardship.

What is the 'Middle Way' in Buddhism?

It has no founder, no dogma, and no single reform; its content accumulated over centuries. It is a rich, 'extrovert' religion of spectacle and abundant mythology, and it characterizes society as a whole (including the caste system).

What is distinctive about Hinduism's origins and structure?

The purification of the mind (Chittasuddhi) and the deepening of the inner life, culminating in the realization of the Highest Good — a Reality that lies beyond the ordinary categories of good and evil.

What is the goal of Hinduism according to the text?

Virtue, duty, or maintenance of the right path. A person's duties (varnasramadharma) are determined by their position in society and stage of life, while sadharanadharma is common to all human beings.

What is 'dharma' in Hinduism?

Ethics is not an end in itself but helps the individual attain Knowledge of Atman or God. An action is meritorious when it involves renunciation (nyasa) and the denial of personal comfort (tapas).

In Hindu ethics, what is the purpose of ethics and what makes an action meritorious?

Liberation — the individual's release. Hinduism is framed as 'An Individual Moksha,' a quest for liberation and freedom from the cycle of existence.

What is 'moksha' in Hinduism?

A dualistic position: reality is the product of the interaction of two things — consciousness (purusa) and matter (prakrti).

What does the Samkhya school hold about reality?

Sanskrit for 'action or motion' (Pali: Kamma). In ethics, the theory of karma explains the moral evolution and consequences of one's actions and decisions.

What is 'karman' (karma)?

A person is a 'notion' or concept, not simply given. Personhood is a reflection of one's humanity (ren) and is a nexus of roles defined by one's relationships — one becomes a person by acting properly within them.

How does Confucianism understand personhood?

The Confucian self is never defined as independent — it is essentially social and relational. The Analects 'completely lacked any notion of interiority,' whereas Western philosophy gives more credence to the soul.

How is the Confucian self different from the Western self?

Ritual — translated as 'holy rite, ritual propriety, ceremony.' It is the sacred conduct by which people mutually recognize and respond to one another; the rites of humanity.

What is 'Li' in Confucianism?

Responsibility / humanity — natural human goodness, benevolence, and nobility enacted in the proper social context. A 'ren' person follows the Way rather than profit and is called a 'noble man,' a Holy Vessel.

What is 'Ren' in Confucianism?

Li (ritual) and Ren (responsibility).

Through what two notions is Confucian personhood illuminated?

It first meant 'road' or 'path.' For Confucius the tao is a 'way' or method — only a principle. For the Taoist, the tao is also regarded as a substance.

What did the term 'tao' originally mean, and how do the Confucian and Taoist uses differ?

Confucius keeps to the practical, plain, normal, prosaic path of human life; Lao Tzu inclines toward speculation, imagination, and the 'plateau' — passing from one to the other is like a change of scenery.

How does the text contrast Confucius and Lao Tzu?

The Tao is the simplicity without names. When names arise (when the simple oneness of Tao splits into individual things), one must stop. The nameless Tao is the consequence of its completeness.

According to Lao Tzu, why is the Tao 'nameless'?

Not through reason or rationalism, but through meditation and intuition — the Tao is transcendental. As Fung put it, Lao Tzu preaches intuition, not rationalism.

How is the Tao known, according to Lao Tzu?

'Non-doing' or 'non-action,' central to Taoism. The phrase 'wei wuwei' means 'to do without doing' / 'to act without action' — letting go of worldly thought and action so the Tao may enter, acting without conscious effort, as nature does.

What is 'wuwei'?

A presence that existed before the universe was formed and continues to guide the world and everything in it. It is sometimes identified as the Mother — the source of all things.

What is the Tao as 'Ultimate Reality'?

No. The Tao is not a god or supreme being, and Taoism has no founder. Its followers do not worship a god; instead they focus on coming into harmony with the Tao.

Is Taoism monotheistic?

Like Christ, Buddha, Mohammed, or Confucius, they were men who taught or wrote about the Tao. They can help point the way, but each person must ultimately find his or her own Tao.

What role do Taoist masters play?

Man takes his law from the Earth; the Earth takes its law from Heaven; Heaven takes its law from the Tao; and the law of the Tao is simply its being what it is.

According to Taoism, where does the Tao get its 'law'?

The Tao that can be expressed in words is not the real or eternal Tao — it is unnameable. Lao Tzu rejected names in favor of the nameless; names and actualities (the loci) are not the Tao itself.

Why can the true Tao not be captured in words?