exam five terms

general pshycology

Bhavioral Theories

B.F. Skinner argued children learn language the same way they learn everything else: through imitation, reinforcement, etc.

Nativist Theories

Chomsky argued that children learn the rules of language, not specific verbal responses.

Humans are equipped with a language acquisition device which means humans learn language because they're biologically equipped for it.

Bilungualism effects

slight handicap in terms of raw language processing speed and verbal fluency

score moderately higher than monolinguals on measures of attention control, working memory capacity, abstract reasoning, and certain types of problem solving

bilinguals and monolinguals are similar in the course and rate of language development

Linguistic relativity

they hypothesis that one's language determines the nature of one's thoughts

Whorf speculated that different languages lead people to view the world
differently

Whorf ’s hypothesis has been the subject of considerable research and
continues to generate debate.

New evidence favoring the linguistic relativity hypothesis.

insight

the sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempts based primarily on trail and error

Trail and Error

trying possible solutions sequentially and discarding those that are in error until one works

Heuristic

a guiding principle or "rule of thumb" used in solving problems or making decesions

Forming Subgoals

Intermediate steps towards a solution

Searching for Analogies

use the solution to a previous problem to solve a current one

Changing the representation

Depends on how you envision a problem.

Use a variety of ways to represent like diagrams, flowcharts, graphs, etc.

Restructuring the representation of problems is often the key to solving insight
problems.

Incubation

occurs when new solutions surface for a previously unsolved problem after a period of not consciously thinking about the problem

Holistic cognitive style

focuses on context and relationships among elements

Analytic cognitive style

focuses on objects and their properties rather than context

David Wechsler

published first high-quality IQ test for adults called the WAIS which was less dependent on subject's verbal ability and used normal distribution

Vocational Succes

Intelligence is assocaited and people who do score high on IQ tests are more likely to end up in high-status jobs

Heredity affects intelligence

twin studies- if pairs of identical twins are more similar in intelligence than pairs of fraternal twins, it's presumably due to their greater genetic similarity

Cultural differnces in IQ scores

Kamin’s analogy shows that group
differences in average IQ could be
caused by environmental factors.

Many social scientists argue that
minority students’ IQ scores are
depressed because their environment
is deprived.

Many researchers argue that ethnic
differences in intelligence are really
social class differences in disguise.

Sternberg's cognitive analysis of intelligence

emphasizes the need to understand how people use their intelligence

Triarchic theory of successful intelligence

Analytical intelligence, Creative intelligence, Practical intelligence

Analytical intelligence

involces abstract reasoning, evaluation, and judgement

Creative intelligence

involves the ability to generate new ideas and to be inventive in dealing with novel problems

Practical intelligence

involves the ability to deal effectively with the kinds of problems people encounter in everyday life

Gamber's fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently

Framing effects

In general, losses loom larger than
gains of equal size.

Loss aversion makes sense because
caution may have helped our ancient
ancestors avoid starvation or death.

Can also lead people to pass up
excellent opportunities.

Bowlby's attachment theory

children come into the world biologically pre-programmed to form attachments with others

Harlow's attachment theory

an infant would form an attachment with a caregiver that provides food

The three stages of Erikson's theory

Intimacy versus isolation, Generativity versus self-absorption, integrity versus despair

Intimacy versus isolation

in early adulthood, the key concern is whether one can develop the capacity to share intimacy with others

Generativity versus self-absorption

in middle adulthood, the key challenge is to acquire a genuice concern for the welfare of future generations

Integrity versus despair

during the retirement years, the challenge is to avoid the tendency to dwell on the mistakes of the past and on one's imminent death

Piaget's stage theory

Sensorimotor period lasts from birth to about age 2. A child develops the ability
to coordinate sensory input with motor actions.

Object permanence develops when a child recognized that objects continue to
exist even when they are no longer visible.

Vygotsky's Sociocultural theory

Cognitive development fueled by social interactions with parents, teachers, and
older children who can provide invaluable guidance.

Language acquisition: Crucial in fostering cognitive development.

Children use private speech to plan their strategies, regulate their actions, and
accomplish their goals.

As children grow older, private speech is internalized and becomes the normal
verbal dialogue that people have with themselves.

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

model attempts to explain how youngsters develop a sense of right and wrong

Punishment orientation (Kohlberg stage 1)

right and wrong is determined by what is punished

Naive reward orientation (Kohlberg stage 2 )

right and wrong is determined by what is rewarded

Good boy/good orientation (Kohlberg stage 3)

right and wrong is determined by close others' approval or disapproval

Authority orientation (Kolhberg stage 4)

right and wrong is determined by society's rules, and laws, which should be obeyed rigidly

Social contract orientation (Kolhberg stage 5)

right and wrong is determined by society's rules, which are viewed as fallible rather than absolute

Indivdual principles and conscience orientation (Kolhberg stage 6)

right and wrong is determined by abstract ethical principals that emphasize equality and justice

Criticsms of Kohlberg's theory

not unsusual to find that a person shows signs of several adjacent levels of moral reasoning at a particular point in development

reflects an individualistic ideology characteristic of modern Western nations that is much more culture specific than this theories founder appreciated

consensus is building that this theory has led to constricted focus on reasoning about interpersonal conflicts, while ingnoring many other important aspects of morla development

James Marcia's identity statuses

Identity diffusion, Identity foreclosure, Identity moratorium, Identity acheivement

Identity diffusion

a state of rudderles apathy, with no commitment to an ideology

Identity foreclosure

A premature commitment to visions, values, and roles

Identity moratorium

A delay of commitment to experiment with alternative ideologies and careers

Identity achievement

Arrival at a sense of self and direction after some consideration of alternative possibilites

Emerging adulthood

the subjective feeling that one is in between adolescence and adulthood

and age of possibilities

a self-focused time of life

a period of instability and chane as struggles with identity issues continue

Adulthood personlaity development

characterized by both stability and change

Attitude before death

anxiety about death typically declines from early to late adulthood (Considerable variation exists among cultures in how people deal with bereavement)

Kubler-Ross's five stages of confronting death

Denial, Anger, Bargaining Depression, Acceptance

Absent grief or the resilient pattern

low levels of depression before and after the spouse's death

Chronic grief

low pre-loss depression followed by sustained depression after the spouse's death

Common grief

a spike in depression shortly after the spouse's death and a decline in depression over time

Depressed-improved

high pre-loss depression followed by a relatively quick and sustained decline in depression after the spouse's death

Chronic dpression

high levels of depression both before and long after spousal loss

Argument for Father's being essential

association between father absence and elevated risk for teenage pregnancy, violent crime, eating disorders, etc.

Critic for Father's being essential

this parental figure being essential rests on correlational evidence, correlation does not mean causation

Evolutionary Perspective on Bias in person Perception

humans are pre-programmed by evolution to immediately classify people as members of an ingroup or members of an outgroup

Reciprocity

liking those who show that they like us

Hazan and Shaver's theory

people's romantic relationships in adulthood are similar in form to their attachments patterns in infancy which fall into secure, avoidant, anxious

Culture and Close Relationships

Cultures differ in the importance of love as a prerequisite for marriage.

Collectivist societies put less emphasis on romantic love than do cultures high in
individualism.

The Internet and Close Relationships

Virtual relationships can be just as intimate as face-to-face ones.

Online matching sites expand opportunities to meet a potential mate.

Some social media generally only highlights good news and can create
compulsive, maladaptive behaviors.

Consistent standards of attraction across cultures

Facial symmetry

Hourglass figure in women preferred by men.

Consistent Gender differences in mating preferences are consistent across highly
varied cultures

Men seek youthfulness and physical attractiveness, both associated with
greater reproductive potential.

Women value ambition, social status, and financial potential, all associated with
material resources for their children.

Asch's reasoning of conformity

as groups grow larger, conformity increases and people tend to conform in certain situations

Milgram's studies on Obedience

argued that strong pressure from an authority figure can make decent people do indecent things to others

Culture Varation in Conformity and Obedience

Replications of Milgram’s obedience study have reported similar or higher
obedience rates in other industrialized nations.

Replications of the Asch experiment have found somewhat higher levels of
conformity in collectivistic cultures than in individualistic cultures.

Bystander effect

the social phenomenon where people are less likely to provide needed help when they are in groups than when they are alone

Social loafing

a reduction in effort by indivduals when they work in groups, as compared with when they work by themselves

Groupthink

a process in which members of a cohesive group emphasize concurrence at the expense of critical thinking in arriving at a decision