AP Gov Pol - Political Participation

Who has the original franchise?

When the nation was first born, it was only white, land owning males who could vote, but it was extended to universal male suffrage fairly soon afterward with the removal of property requirements.

Expanding political rights

Constitution

• 15th Amendment

  • Race

• 17th Amendment

  • Senators elected by the people

• 19th Amendment

  • Women

• 23rd Amendment

  • Allowed Citizens in DC to vote

• 24th Amendment

  • No Poll Taxes

• 26th Amendment

  • Voting age lowered to 18

Rational choice voting

• Voting based on what is perceived to be in the citizen’s individual interest 

Retrospective voting

• Voting to decide whether the party or candidate in power should be re-elected based on the recent past 

Prospective voting

• Voting based on predictions of how a party or candidate will perform in the future 

Party line

• Supporting a party by voting for candidates from one political party for all public offices across the ballot

Factors that effect voting behavior

1. Demographics

2. Political Efficacy/Engagement

3. Structural Barriers

4. The Type of Election

Demographic - factor explain

Demographics play a role in voter behavior as general trends indicate that women tend to vote more for Democrats, while men tend to vote more for Republicans; younger voters, when they do turn out, tend to favor Democrats, whereas older voters tend to favor Republicans; and certain religious demographics, such as Evangelical Christians, tend to have deep loyalties to the Republican party, while Jews tend to vote more for Democrats.

How does political efficacy impact voters

Political efficacy is a citizen’s sense of whether or not their vote can make a difference, which can then impact their voting behavior positively or negatively.

Structural barriers to voting

• Polling hours

• Availability of absentee ballots

• Confusing directions

• Long Lines

• ID requirements

Why does election type matter?

The type of election impacts voter behavior because many more people choose to vote in a presidential election than in congressional, state, or county elections.

Factors influencing voters choice

1. Party Identification and ideological orientation

   1. People registered with a party tend to vote for that party.

2. Candidate Characteristics

   1. Candidate-centered elections

3. Contemporary Political Issues

4. Demographics

   1. Religious beliefs of affiliations, gender, race and ethnicity, and other demographic characteristics.

Candidate characteristics

Candidate characteristics have a significant impact on voter behavior, as individuals may be swayed to vote for a candidate based on their perceived qualities such as honesty, likability, and trustworthiness.

Impact of contemporary issues

Contemporary political issues can strongly influence voter behavior, as seen in historical examples like the Vietnam War, where the government’s mishandling and deceit prompted voters to oust the Republicans and favor the Democrats

Single issue voters

• Single issue voters are people who base their votes on the candidates’ stances on a single question of public policy. 

• Ideologically controversial issues such as abortion and gun control are most commonly subject to single issue voting.

Fun with “linkage institutions”

• Linkage institutions are channels that allow individuals to communicate their preferences to policy-makers: 

  • Parties  

  • Interest Groups  

  • Elections 

  • Media

The functions of political parties in the election process

• The functions and impact of political parties on the electorate and government are represented by: 

  • Mobilization and education of voters  

  • Party platforms  

  • Candidate recruitment 

  • Campaign management, including fundraising and media strategy 

  •  The committee and party leadership systems in legislatures

The Party Platform

A party platform, also known as a party program or party manifesto, is a formal document outlining a political party's principles, goals, and positions on various issues. It serves several key purposes:

• Articulates the party's vision: It provides a clear picture of what the party stands for, what they believe in, and what they aim to achieve if elected.

• Guides candidates: The platform serves as a guide for individual candidates within the party, providing them with a framework for their own campaign promises and positions.

• Informs voters: Platforms offer voters valuable information about the party's stances on various issues, enabling them to make informed choices during elections.

Political parties seek coalitions

Coalitions help parties broaden their appeal and find success with voters by allowing parties to adjust their proposals and platform emphases to cater to the desires of specific demographic groups, such as Millennials or retired persons. This strategic alignment with different coalitions enables parties to reach a larger voter base and potentially influence election outcomes.

Party reallignment

• Party realignment can influence political parties by prompting them to make changes in response to large groups of voters shifting their support from one party to another. 

• Significant defeats in elections can serve as signals to the losing party that they are out of touch with the nation’s desired outcomes, leading to the need for adjustments and tweaks to regain competitiveness.

How does psychographic analysis help political parties?

Psychographic analysis helps political parties by providing insights into the inner motivations, aspirations, and desires of voters, allowing parties to tailor their policies, messaging, and candidate presentation to appeal to a wide base of voters. Parties gather this information through the mining of databases which enables them to refine their strategies and effectively connect with their target audience.

Proportional voting

Proportional voting is a system where seats in a legislative body are allocated to parties based on the percentage of votes they receive, allowing third parties a chance to be represented in proportion to their support. We generally don’t have this nationally.  State/local level may have a version. 

Winner takes it all/districts

• an electoral system in which a single political party or group can elect every office within a given district or jurisdiction.  Winner-take-all is contrasted with proportional representation, in which more than one political party or group can elect offices in proportion to their voting power.

• Kills “multiple party system,” / third parties, not great for minority representation as allows only largest, most popular parties to win.  

Why do third parties struggle?

• Third Party: (A party not Republican or Democrat in US)

• Winner-Take-All elections

• Their agendas are often absorbed by the major parties which is why they still try. 

• Major Parties control state voting regulations and make it difficulty for 3rd Parties to get on ballots 

How a single member district hurts 3rd parties

Single-member districts (aka: “only one winner”) make it very difficult for third parties to ever win a nationwide election because in this system, the candidate who receives the most votes wins, and there is only one winner, unlike proportional voting systems where seats are allocated based on the percentage of votes, making it harder for third parties to gain representation in the absence of a majority support.

What is an interest group?

a group of people that seeks to influence public policy on the basis of a particular common interest or concern.

Benefits of an interest group

• Interest groups may represent very specific or more general interests that otherwise would have a smaller voice

• Educate voters and office holders,

• Draft legislation, and 

• Mobilize membership to apply pressure on and work with legislators and government agencies

Potential issues of an interest group

• Too Much Influence over the legislation and executive process

• May not be in the interest of the majority of people 

Factors that may affect the power of interest groups

• Inequality of political and economic resources 

•  Unequal access to decision makers 

• “Free riders (#30)” problem (not everyone does the work.. they just reap the benefits and can limit power of groups).

How do interest groups use lobby to influence politics

• engaging in direct communication with lawmakers

• providing expertise on policy matters, drafting legislation

• working to educate the public about their issue

• seeking to influence policymakers and shape legislation in their favor.

What is an issue network?

An issue network refers to a temporary cooperative network that forms among different interest groups when a specific issue intersects their concerns, allowing

them to temporarily set aside differences and collaborate towards a common goal, even if they may have conflicting positions on other matters.

How are interest groups, social movements, and protest movements similar as they work toward policy outcomes?

• These movements share the common goal of influencing policy outcomes.

•  While interest groups rely on organized structures and funding, social and protest movements operate in a more grassroots and citizen-driven manner, often employing civil disobedience to draw attention to injustices, yet they have still been able to achieve policy changes.

What is the role and function of elections as a linkage institution?

• provide a mechanism for selecting political representatives and leaders, allowing citizens to participate in the democratic process.

• In primary elections, caucuses, and national conventions, candidates compete for party nominations, ultimately leading to the general election… and give people a democratic choice.

General Election

s normally are fixed on a set date by law and occur at set intervals.  Candidates compete for votes amongst the general public.

A special election

is an election that takes place outside of the regular election cycle. It is often held to fill a vacancy in an elected office or to allow the public to vote on a specific issue.

• When a senator resigns or dies in office, a special election may be held to fill the vacancy.

A city council may call a special election to ask voters to approve a new tax or bond measure.

Primary elections

Elections in which members of the party indicate which candidate they want to represent them

Closed primary

Voters must cast a ballot for a candidate which aligns with the votes declared party (Ex. Nevada). Voters can only vote in a partys primary election if they are registered with that party

Open primary

Voters can vote for a candidate representing any party regardless of the part reflected. Voters can vote for a candidate of either party, regardless of their party affiliation

Semi closed primary

Unaffiliated voters can participate in any party primary they chose. However, voters registered with a party cannot vote in another party’s primary

Caucus

A gathering of registered voters to discuss and determine the nomination of a candidate

Primary

A vote by ballot to determine the nomination of a candidate

Advantages of Incumbency

Most incumbents win re-election

• senate seats more vulnerable than House

Incumbent advantages over opponents

• providing constituent services

• visible presence

• influence legislation and spending within district

• free media access

• experience in elections

What is a Midterm Election?

• Takes place mid-way through the term of a President (two years).

• Why are they important? 

  • House and Senate may change parties

  • Referendum on first two years of President

What is a “faithless elector”

• An electoral college member who casts a vote in contradiction to the popular vote outcome of their state, deviating from the expected behavior of voting in line with the people’s choice.

• Most States have laws against this

Media as a linage institution

• Media shapes how the public sees issues though reporting on new events, investigative journalism, and political commentary

• Media uses polls to turn elections and government into a “horse race” 

  • Based more on popularity and other factors and less on qualifications and issues

How have political parties changed?

1. Candidate Centered Campaigns

2. Lesser role for party in Candidate Selection 

3. Platforms are developed to appeal to certain voters

   1. Republicans: Evangelical - Democrats: Young Voters

4. Parties use communication technologies to reach voters and respond quickly

   1. Twitter/Email/Social Media etc 

Party structure changes

• The structure of parties has been influenced by: 

  • Critical elections and regional realignments 

    • Gerrymandering,  The Southern States 

  • Campaign finance law 

    • Citizens United / McCain Feingold

  • Changes in communication and data-management technology

    • The Internet Age

Processes and outcomes that impact presidential elections

• Incumbency advantage phenomenon

• Open and closed primaries

• Caucuses

• Party conventions

• Congressional and State elections

• The Electoral College

Processes and outcomes that impact Congressional elections

• Incumbency advantage phenomenon

• Open and closed primaries

• Caucuses

• General (mid-term and presidential) elections

What are the Advantages of Incumbency?

The incumbency advantage refers to the benefits and advantages enjoyed by an incumbent candidate (someone currently holding the office) seeking re-election compared to their challengers. These advantages can contribute significantly to their chances of winning. They include

• Name Recognition

• Access to Resources / Information

• Experience / Record in Office

• Optics

How campaign organizations and strategies affect the election process 

• Dependance on professional consultants

• Rising campaign costs and intensive fundraising efforts 

• Duration of election cycles

• Social media for communication and fundraising

The nature of democratic debate and level of political knowledge among citizens is impacted by:

• Increased media choices

• Ideologically oriented programming

• Consumer-driven media outlets and emerging technologies that reinforce existing beliefs

• Uncertainty over credibility of news sources and information

Campaign Finance as a Linkage Institution

• People / Corporations participate in the political process by donating their money.

• Reflects their ideology

• Want favorable treatment in return

Federal Elections Commission (FEC)

• responsible for enforcing and regulating campaign finance laws

• setting limits on individual and PAC donations to political candidates

• ensure fair elections

• prevent the violation of the first amendment’s protection of free speech.

Different types of PACs (Political Action Committees) and how they influence elections

Connected PAC

established by corporations or entities like labor unions, which can only collect funds from members of the associated organization and donate limited amounts directly to candidates, while having the ability to raise unlimited funds as long as indicial contributions limits are followed.

Non-connected PAC

an independent political action committee (PAC) focused on a specific public interest, not associated with any organization., with limited donations by law, but the ability to directly contribute to a candidates campaign.

Super PAC

an independent political action committee that can accept unlimited donations from anyone, but is prohibited from coordinating directly with a candidate, leading to concerns about the influence of wealth on democracy.

Top Spending Super PACs

Bipartisan Campaign Finance Reform Act of 2002 (McCain Feingold Act)

• Attempt to ban “soft money”

• “Stand by Your Ad” - “I’m so and so and I approve this message”

Citizens United v. FEC (2010)

Debate over campaign finance has increased in recent years. What do you think about it?

The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) 2002

• increased the limits on hard money donations to campaigns 

• Restricted the influence of soft money by placing regulations on its spending, such as the requirement for candidate-associated advertisements to include a statement of approval from the candidate.

Hard Money:

Donations made directly to a candidate's campaign, regulated strictly by the FEC (Federal Election Commission) with limits on amounts.

• Subject to federal limits

• May only come from an individual or a political action committee

• Monitored by the Federal Election Committee

Soft Money:

Donations to parties or committees for "party-building" activities (e.g., voter registration, ads not directly supporting a candidate), which are not subject to strict federal limits.

• No limits to amount recieved

• Can come from individuals, committees, or corporations

• Indirect contributions to political parties and political action committees

• Can’t be directly limked to, or directed by, the political candidate(s) they support

The Media As a Linkage Institution  

Media links people to news, events, and helps shape public opinion.

Acting as “Gatekeeper”:

Media decides what people see and what stories are important

Historical Change:

From basic information to For-Profit Infotainment… they work to get money and clicks.

Fairness Doctrine:

Must give equal time to each candidate on national airwaves… however it was overturned in the 1980s.

Echo Chambers:

one way to get money and clicks to to “feed” people what they like or what they know will aggravate them. Like-minded people can meet more easily to commiserate.

Investigative Journalism:

Has worked to expose some of the largest stories .. bring to light issues and spark public outrage

Diversity in media choice and its influence on political institutions and behavior

• Political participation impacted by variety of media coverage

  • analysis and commentary on political events

• Rapidly increasing demand for media

• Media bias

  • Bad for democracy or a natural product of our political culture?

  • Media ownership

  • Partisan news sites

Political Actors that Influence Public Policy Outcome

• Single issue groups (NRA, MADD), ideological/social movements, protest movements

• Competing actors

  • Interest groups

  • Social movements

  • Military

  • Bureaucratic institutions

• Elections and political parties are related to major policy shifts, could cause political realignments