Ethics Exam 2

What is the core definition of rule utilitarianism?

An action is right if it follows a general rule whose universal adoption maximizes utility.

How does rule utilitarianism differ from act utilitarianism regarding individual acts?

Rule utilitarianism evaluates acts based on general policies, whereas act utilitarianism evaluates each specific act's consequences.

What is the 'Problem of Extensional Equivalence' in utilitarian theory?

The concern that rule utilitarianism inevitably collapses into act utilitarianism by adopting rules that maximize utility.

What is the primary moral duty according to ethical egoism?

To maximize one's own self-interest or well-being.

How does objective ethical egoism differ from subjective ethical egoism?

Objective egoism requires maximizing real self-interest, while subjective egoism only requires following one's perceived self-interest.

In the context of ethical egoism, what is 'agent utility'?

The net balance of pleasure minus pain an individual receives from performing an action.

Under what condition does ethical egoism permit an individual to benefit others?

Benefiting others is permitted only if doing so also maximizes the agent's own self-interest.

What is the premise of the 'self-reliance' argument for ethical egoism?

Everyone is collectively better off if each person minds their own business and pursues their own interests.

Why is the self-reliance argument for egoism considered self-refuting?

It relies on the utilitarian premise that we should do whatever makes everyone collectively better off.

How does psychological egoism differ from ethical egoism?

Psychological egoism describes how people actually behave, while ethical egoism prescribes how people should behave.

What does the 'Ought Implies Can' principle state about moral obligation?

An agent is only morally obligated to do something if they are physically and psychologically capable of doing it.

What is the main objection to the 'I always do what I want' argument for psychological egoism?

It confuses the origin of a desire with the object or goal of that desire.

What does the 'Argument from Paradigm Cases' attempt to show about ethical egoism?

It shows that egoism fails because it permits clearly immoral acts like murder or theft if they benefit the agent.

How does Kurt Baier argue that ethical egoism is self-contradictory?

He claims it can judge the same act as both right for one person to do and right for another to prevent.

Why is ethical egoism accused of being unacceptably arbitrary?

It treats the agent as special without identifying a relevant difference between the agent and everyone else.

What is the 'state of nature' in social contract theory?

A condition of anarchy where individuals have no government, laws, or social cooperation.

How does the 'Prisoner's Dilemma' illustrate the benefit of a social contract?

It demonstrates that rational individuals can achieve a better outcome through enforced cooperation than by pursuing solo self-interest.

What is 'contractarianism' as a normative theory?

The view that moral rules are those that rational, self-interested people would agree to for mutual benefit.

How does John Rawls propose we determine the rules of a moral contract?

By imagining what rules rational agents would choose from behind a 'veil of ignorance.'

What is the purpose of the 'veil of ignorance' in Rawls' theory?

To ensure fairness by preventing agents from knowing their own social status, wealth, or specific talents.

How does a contractarian justify the existence of legal punishment?

Punishment provides the necessary enforcement mechanism to ensure that everyone abides by the social contract.

What is the 'Scope of the Moral Community' objection to contractarianism?

It excludes animals and the cognitively disabled because they lack the rational capacity to agree to a contract.

What is the 'Problem of Consent' in contractarian theory?

The fact that most people have never explicitly agreed to the moral or social contracts that supposedly bind them.

How do contractarians use 'tacit consent' to respond to objections about missing agreements?

They argue that by accepting the benefits of social living, individuals implicitly agree to follow the community's rules.

How does deontology differ from consequentialism regarding the value of an action?

Deontology focuses on the intrinsic nature of the act itself, whereas consequentialism focuses on the act's results.

In Kantian ethics, what are the three components of a 'maxim'?

A description of the situation, the action to be performed, and the goal to be achieved.

What is the difference between a hypothetical imperative and a categorical imperative?

Hypothetical imperatives apply only if you have a specific goal, while categorical imperatives apply regardless of your desires.

What is the 'Formula of Universal Law'?

The requirement to act only on maxims that you can consistently will to become universal laws.

Why is 'the promise-breaking' example immoral under Kant's Formula of Universal Law?

If everyone broke promises, the institution of promising would disappear, making the original goal of the lie impossible.

According to Kant, what defines an 'autonomous agent'?

A being capable of acting voluntarily according to principles they prescribe to themselves.

What does Kant's 'Formula of Humanity' prescribe?

To treat humanity always as an end in itself and never merely as a means to an end.

What does it mean to treat someone 'merely as a means'?

To use another person as a tool for your own goals without their consent.

Under what condition does an action have 'moral worth' for Kant?

When the agent is motivated solely by respect for the moral law.

What is the 'murderer at the door' objection to Kant's theory?

It suggests the theory is too rigid because it would forbid lying even to save an innocent person's life.

How does Kant characterize heteronomous agents like inanimate objects?

As beings that lack the capacity for voluntary action and thus have no inherent moral status.

Why is 'watering the lawn during a drought' immoral under FUL?

Universalizing the act would lead to a water shortage, undermining the agent's goal of having a nice lawn.

What is the contractarian 'escape clause' for moral rules?

You are only obligated to follow rules as long as others are also following them.

What is the 'I Always Do What I Want' argument for psychological egoism?

The claim that since every intentional action satisfies a desire of the agent, all actions are self-interested.

Concept: The Original Position

Definition: A hypothetical state where rational agents choose social rules without knowing their future place in society.

Why does the contractarian believe morality is a 'flexible' doctrine?

Moral rules lose their force when social cooperation collapses and trust is gone.

What distinguishes 'altruistic' motives from 'egoistic' motives in psychology?

Altruistic motives aim to benefit others, while egoistic motives aim to benefit oneself.

What is the primary goal of a normative theory in ethics?

To provide a criterion for determining which actions are morally right or wrong.